When the Roman navy was founded between the years 310 to 300 BC, it was based on an existing Greek model. The Romans made one alteration of the Greek organisation by making the fleet a branch of the army¹. The first Roman navy was a small fleet of triremes and were ships with soldiers stationed onboard. This original small navy was scrapped a few years later as at that time Rome really never felt a need for a permanent navy.

It was not until 260 BC, and due to the threat from the naval forces of Carthage during the Punic Wars² that Rome decided it needed a permanent navy to protect supply and transport routes. This new fleet was made up of triremes and a few quinquereme³ and soon grew to around 330 ships. Over time, the fleet grew to 700 ships, but due to losses in battle and lack of maintenance, this number fell. Eventually the only operational ships they had to use were those supplied by treaty with the provinces of Rhodes and Pergamum. After the destruction of Carthage the Roman navy expanded and eventually gained control over the whole of the Mediterranean and area of about, 2.5 million square kilometres. This explains the number of ships and men required to police this vast area. The Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum our sea. However the meaning of the word Mediterranean is, in the middle (medius) of the earth (terra).

To understand why there were so many Roman fleets it is important to realise that most of Rome’s fleets⁴ were established to assist in the expansion of the Empire and then secure the conquered provinces. The duties of the fleets were to provide rapid transport of the army, and the supply of the army whilst on campaign.

Once the empire of Rome had expanded to the point that the territories included all the countries on the coast of the Mediterranean, the fleets stationed there enjoyed a period of extended peace. During the era known as the Imperial period⁵ the fleets had little active duties other than patrol and escort duties for merchant shipping⁶.

The Mediterranean became so quiet that it has been referred to as the Roman Boating Lake with only the danger of pirates to deal with. However, the channel fleet the Classis Britannica and the Rhine, Danube and Black Sea fleets were kept in active patrolling the frontier and dealing with raiders.

The Roman Fleets⁷

This provides a basic profile of the scope of the Roman navy and the fleets that saw service from the fall of Carthage, to the withdrawing of Roman forces from Britain. There is a considerable amount of evidence from some parts of the empire and almost nothing from others. Due to the less obvious role they played in the defence of the empire some of the fluvial fleets have been almost overlooked and may have been included in the garrison of the nearest fort but none will have been deliberately missed out. The fort of Arbeia modern South Shields, on Hadrian’s Wall is an example. The garrison roster included a Company of Bargemen (or boatmen) from the Tigris but there is no fleet or squadron of the Classis Britannica recorded in that area. The Company of Tigris bargemen were a military company so they were not civilian or merchant sailors. There is little doubt that some might have been overlooked as there are many places around the coast where there may have been a fort with a base, or the very least an anchorage⁸.

The Praetorian Fleets

The Praetorian fleets were created to be under the direct control of the Emperor and were therefore based close to the strategic centres of the empire. The commanders were carefully selected and directly appointed by the Emperor, often from the ranks of imperial freedmen, in order to ensure their loyalty.

The Classis Ravenatis

Created in 28 BC, Their home port was Ravenna.

The Classis Misenensis

Created in 28 BC, Their home port was Portus Julius.

Both the classes Ravenatis and classes Misenensis were formed as home water fleets and their duties were mainly to patrol and escort convoys. They were available for Imperial duties and were given the title Praetorian to indicate this status. They may have been formed from the division of the Classis Africana Commodiana Herculea African fleet. The Praetorian fleets were active in all parts of the Mediterranean, inscriptions have been found in Syria and Piraeus near Athens showing the fleets were active in the areas.

The Fleets In The Provinces

The African to Italy Trade Route

The Classis Africana Commodiana Herculea - Created in around 40 AD, Their home port was not recorded but it was likely to have been Ostia. Referred to as the African fleet it was formed to protect the trade route from Africa to Rome’s main port of Ostia. This was necessary to protect the shipments of grain to Rome which included the free wheat allotment to poorer citizens of Rome.

The Fluvial Fleets

The River Rhine

The Classis Germanica. - Created in 12 BC, Their home port was Castra Vetera (near modern Briten) the town was the main base in the region for a legionary force of over 8,000. When the settlement was destroyed during a Batavian uprising in 69 AD, the base was transferred to Colonia Agrippinensis⁹ modern Cologne. This was a fluvial fleet, which is a fleet that was equipped with ships designed for use in the shallower waters of rivers and estuaries. It did however have ships capable of operating at sea as the fleet also patrolled the North Sea.

Lake Constance

There is evidence that there were also ships stationed on Lake Constance (situated between Austria, Switzerland and Austria) weather these ships were a squadron of the Classis Germanica or a separate fleet that was stationed on the lake is unclear. It is however most probable that the ships were part of the Classis Germanica as the Lake Constance flows into the River Rhine.

The River Danube and Black Sea

The Danube West

The Classis Pannonica or Pannonian fleet - Created in 30 BC, Their home port was probably Aquincum, near modern Budapest. This was a major settlement of around 42,000 people and around 49 AD. this city had a legionary garrison of 6,000, with a supporting cavalry squadron of 500. This was also a fluvial fleet that had various bases along the western Danube. Owing to the geography of the river the Danube and the natural hazard of the Kazan Gorge, the Danube had two fleets. The Classis Pannonica to the west of the Kazan Gorge.

The Danube East

The Classis Moesica or Moesian fleet - Created in 20 BC, Their home port was Noviodunum, was another fluvial fleet with various bases along the Danube from the east of the Kazan Gorge, also known as the Iron Gates, to the Black Sea. In addition to the security of the Danube the Classis Moesica was given the duty of patrolling the northern half of the Black Sea including the shores of the Crimea.

The importance of the city of Noviodunum, the fleets main statio (landing place) is indicated by the fact that it achieved the status of municipium in 46 AD. The city garrison appears to have been between 2,000 and 3,000 marines and sailors with a vexillation (1,000 men) of the Legion XI Claudia. From 117 AD until 180 AD the Legion V Macedonica supported by 4,000 auxiliary horse and foot were also stationed in the province.

The Danube

The Classis Histrica - Eventually around the year 390AD, the Classis Pannonica and the Classis Moesica were combined into the Classis Histrica. The home ports were Mursa, Florentia, Arruntum, Viminacum and Aegetae. There were a number of smaller fleets patrolling the tributaries that fed into the Danube. The fleets patrolling the tributaries were,

• The Classis Arlapensis et Maginensis - The home fleets ports were at Comagena and Arelape.
• The Classis Ratianensis - The home port was Dacia Ripensis.
• The Classis Lauriacensis - The home port was Lauriacum.
• The Classis Stradensis et Germensis - The home port was Margo.

The units serving the fleet are listed as the milites liburnarii and the milites nauclarii. This list is a very vague, however these men do appear to have been attached to the following Legions that were stationed in the area.

• The Legio II Herculia the Second Legion the followers of Hercules - Formed at the order of Emperor Diocletian to garrison the province of Scythia Minor between the Black Sea and the River Danube.
• The Legio XIV Gemina the fourteenth Twin Legion - One of the legions that invaded Britain, who also distinguished themselves by defeating Boudicca.
• The Legio X Gemina the tenth Twin Legion - One of the legions that took part in Caesars expedition to Britain in 55 BC.

Other Fluvial Fleets

• The Classis Anderetianorum - The fleets home port was Lutetia¹⁰ (modern Paris, the city took the name in 360 AD.) a city with a population of around 8,000, its duties were transport and patrol on the Rivers Seine and Oise.
• The Classis Ararica – The fleets home port was Caballodunum (modern Chalon-sur-Saône), the fleet duties included transport and patrol on the River Saone.
• The Classis Fluminis Rhodani, – The River Rhone fleet had two home ports were Aries modern Arelate a major port since Phoenician times and its size and status as a Colony of the veterans of the VI Legion a favourite of Caesar’s who’s nickname was the Ferrata or ‘Ironclad‘¹¹. The city was also the site of the most southerly bridge on the River Rhone¹². Despite this Aries for supremacy with Massalia modern Marseilles another Phoenician city, both city’s provided supporting bases for the river fleet the duties of which were mainly transport and patrol on the River Rhone.
• The Classis Sambrica – The fleets home port was Locus Quartensis, duties were patrol and transport escort on the River Somme.

Lake Based Fluvial Fleets

• The Classis Barcariorum – Their home port was Eburodunum (modern Yverdon-les-Bains), a patrol fleet of small ships patrolling Lake Neuchâtel the largest of the Swiss lakes.
• The Classis Comensis – The home Port was not recorded and was a series of bases on the shore of Lake Como which is one of the largest of the Italian lakes a fleet of small ships was stationed here for transport and patrol duties.

The Fleets In The Provinces

The Channel and Britain

The Classis Britannica. - Created in 41 AD, The home Port was Gesoriacum - (modern Boulogne-sur-Mer). This fleet was created to provide support for the invasion of Britain. Gesoriacum, was the port of embarkation of the invasion force. After the successful crossing of the Occeanus Britannicus, the English Channel, landings took place at Richborough, Lympne and Dover, and the establishment of a supply base at Noviomagus (modern Bosham) Sussex, The fleet was in action supporting the crossing of the Thames, and providing an escort for Emperor Claudius in 46 AD when he visited Britain, transporting his Praetorian Guard, elephants for his triumphal entry into Camulodunum, modern Colchester. The home port was transferred to Rutupiae (modern Richborough) and Dubris (modern Dover) in 84 - 86 BC. The British fleet established bases around Britain such as Portus Adurni - Portchester, Anderida - Pevensey, Portus Lemanis - Lympne and a fleet anchorage at each end of
Hadrian's Wall at Maia - Bowness and Arbeia - South Shields. During the reign of Constantine I this system became an independent command referred to as Litus Sxonicum the Saxon shore defences, with bases located at shore forts around the coast. The commander if the Litus Sxonicum was given the title of Comes Litoris Saxonice Britanniam, Count of the Saxon Shore. The bases were listed in an official Imperial document known as the Notitia Dignitatum as follows.

• Portus Adurni -
  Portchester Castle.
  The garrisons mentioned in the Notitia Dignitatum were the Numerus Exploratorum and the Numerus Exploratorum Habitanco or The Company of Scouts from Habitancum both units were auxiliary scouts.
• Anderida – Pevensey.
  The original garrison appears to have been the Numerus Abulcorum a company of auxiliaries from Spain.
• Portus Lemanis – Lympne.
  From the fourth century the garrison of the fort was the Numerus Turnacensium.
• Dubris – Dover
  The garrison was provided by the Milites Tungrecani or the men of the Tungrecani.
• Rutupiae – Richborough.
  The garrison was sections of Legio II Augusta the Second Augustan Legion.
• Regulbium – Reculver.
  From the third century it garrisoned by the Cohors I Baetasiorum auxiliaries recrutied in the Rhineland. This unit was posted here from Maryport on the Cumbrian coast.
• Othona – Bradwell-on-Sea
  The garrison was the Numerus Fortensium or the Company of Brave Men
• Gariannonum – Burgh Castle.
  The garrison was the Equites Stablesiani Gariannoneses or Horsemen from the Stables at Gariannum.
• Branodunum – Brancaster.
  The Celtic name of which was Fort of Bran. The original garrison appears to have been the cohors I Aquitanorum a company of auxiliary infantry from the area nort of the Pyrenees and later Equites Dalmatae Brandodunenses. A unit of auxiliary horse from Dalmatia, the unit took the title Brandodunenses from the name of the fort.

The term Numerus refers to an army unit of 200 to 400 men normally auxiliary, the number varied depending upon the duties of the unit.

There were also forts located at Caister and Walton situated at the mouths of the Rivers Orwell, Deben and Stour off Felixstowe, both forts are now lost due to coastal erosion. Further forts were at Carisbrooke and possibly at Bembridge on the Isle of Wight as this provides a fine sheltered anchorage on the eastern side of the island. There was also a base at Clausentum near Bittern on the outskirts of Southampton, Cardiff, Holyhead and Topsham.

On the vulnerable northwest coast there is evidence of a chain of five watchtowers lotated at Filey, Scarborough, Ravenscar, Goldsborough and Huntclif this coastal defence relied upon the deployment of forces by road. Troops from Lindum, modern Lincoln could reach the area on Ermine Street via the Roman ferry¹³ across the Humber estuary from Wintringham to Brough on Humber. All the forts appear to have been linked by signal stations and watchtowers to local garrisons and legionary garrisons such a the ones at Linum and Ebuacum modern York and Corstopitum modern Stangate located on Hadrians Wall .

The forts in Britain were supported by a chain of forts along the coast of France from Nantes to Oudenburk in Belgium, this included a base on Alderney on the Channel Islands. The bases on mainland Europe were also listed in the Notitia Dignitatum and are as follows.

• Manatias - Nantes
  The garrison was the Milites Superventores, this was an auxiliary unit of light cavalry.
• Benetis – Vannes
  The garrison was the Milites Mauri Beneti this was a mixed unit of light auxiliary cavalry.
• Blabia – Hennebont
  The garrison was the Milites Carronensii.
• Osismis – Brest
  The garrison was the Milites Martensii Mauri Osismiaci, this was probably a unit of light auxiliary cavalry.
• Aletum – Saint-Malo
  The garrison was the Milites Martensii.
• Abricantis – Avranches
  The garrison listed was the Milites Dalmati a unit from modern Dalmatia.
• Constantia – Coutances
  The garrison mentioned was the Legio I Flavia Gallicana Constantia or Reliable Flavian Legion of Gaul. This was an infantry unit with auxiliary cavalry support.
• Rotomagus – Rouen
  The garrison was the milites Ursariensii.
• Grannona – Port-en-Bessin
  The garrison was the Cohors Prima Nova Armoricana.

All units listed as the garrison in the forts were listed in official documents such as the Notitia Dignitatum.

Although not listed in the Notitia Dignitatum the final fort in the chain appears to have been Oudenburk in Belgium. There is little remaining evidence however it is reasonable to expect that the forts would have been connected by signal stations and watchtowers with supporting garrisons as in Britain.

The African to Italian Trade Route

The Classis Africana Commodiana Herculea - Created in 186 BC, The home port was not recorded but it was possibly Ostia. Referred to as the African fleet it was formed to protect the trade route from Africa to Rome’s main port of Ostia. This was necessary to protect the shipments of grain to Rome which included the free wheat allotment to poorer citizens of Rome.

The Black Sea

The Classis Pontica¹⁴ - This became part of the Roman navy when Pontus was made a province of the Empire by Nero. Originally the Classis Pontica was responsible for the protection of the Black Sea. When he became Emperor, Hadrian reorganised the fleets in the area and this fleet was given the responsibility for the southern part of the Black Sea, the northern part and the mouth of the Danube became the responsibility or the Classis Moesica.

The Coast of Thrace

The Classis Perinthia - was also known as the Thracian fleet.
it was created in 46 AD, Their home port was Perinthus, with other bases situated along the Thracian coast. The fleet was formed when Thrace became part of the Empire.

The Agean and Eastern Mediterranean

The Classis Syriaca Syrian fleet - Created in 64 BC. The home port was Seleucia Pieriae in Syria, this fleet controlled the Eastern Mediterranean sea and the Aegean Sea.

The Western Mediterranean

The Classis Mauretaniae African fleet - Created in 170 AD, The fleets home port was Caesarea - (modern Cherchell), it was formed to keep control of the African coast at the western end of the Mediterranean.

The Alexandrian Coast

The Classis Alexandrina Alexandrian fleet - Created in 30 BC, The home port of the fleet was Alexandria, the fleet was formed to provide escorts for the grain shipments from Nile Delta to Rome. The Classis Alexandrina also the duty of patrolling the Nile.

Northern Adriatic Sea

The Classis Venetum - Created in 30 BC, The fleets home port was Aquileia it was formed to keep control of the northern Adriatic Sea, and keep open the important route between Dalmatia and Rome.

Ranks

The Praefecti ('Fleet commander'):

The structure of the fleet is the same as any legion, however as the navy was considered as an inferior service, it was considered beneath a Legate to command such a force. Legates were normally appointed from the Noble or Patrician class (the highest class in Roman society), or the Senatores (the Senatorial class) the next highest class in Roman society. For the appointment as commander of a fleet a Prefect was thought more suitable as they were mainly from the lower Equestrian class Eques Romanus¹⁵ and considered socially inferior to the others.

Prefects were normally chosen from those of equestrian class who had some military experience, or were appointed by the Emperor. The practice of appointing imperial freedmen¹⁶ became common as it assured the Emperor a measure of control over the navy. As the appointments were largely political and almost all of the Prefects were totally reliant on the experience of their subordinates to command the fleets effectively.

There were ranks even among the Prefects who were ranked by the relative importance of the fleet they commanded. The rank also indicated the amount the appointment annually paid.

Title: Procuratores Ducenarii annual pay was the highest at 200,000 sesterces.
Fleets: The Praetorian Fleets the Classis Ravenatis and the Classis Misenensis.

Title: Procuratores Centenarii although these fleets were the most likely to see action the annual pay was 100,000 sesterces.
Fleets: The Classis Britannica, the Classis Germanica and the Classis Pontica.

Title: Procuratores Sexagenarii annual pay awarded was 60,000 sesterces.
Fleets: The Classis Africana Commodiana Herculea, the Classis Moesica, the Classis Perinthia, the Classis Syriaca and the Classis Mauretaniae and the Classis Alexandrina, the other fleets listed would have received a similar rate, but it may have been reduced according to the importance of the fleet.

Other Ranks

Navarch ('Squadron commander'):

Also known as Nauarchus and in later periods Nauarchus Archigubernes or Nauarchus Princeps. A Roman Squadron normally consisted of 10 ships.

Trierarch ('Captain'):

In command of all of aspects ship control whilst the vessel was not in action, giving direct orders regarding the ship and crew. The Centurion was in command of his men at all times; the Navarch had no direct authority over the milites or common soldiers.

Centuriae ('Centurion' Military commander and ships Captain in Battle):

In command of soldiers stationed on the ship. In addition he was also in command of all aspects of ship control whilst the vessel was in action giving the Trierarch direct orders regarding the ship and crew. Possibly the most dangerous rank in battle as a good Centurion was an inspiration to his men. By tradition Centurions always led the men they commanded from the front, with a furious first in last out style of leadership, so Centurions suffered high casualty rates as they were constantly proving they were the bravest and the best fighters.

Optio Centuriae ('Optio centurion' A junior centurion) :

Or Optio navaliorum if in charge of ships regarded as second in command of the ship during combat. It must be remembered a ship at sea was regarded as a century. The name means ‘the chosen’ as the man for the post was the centurion’s choice of the best man of his command. The Optios main duty in combat was to ensure that the commands of the Centurion were carried out especially in battle. In battle if the Centurion was killed or injured it was the Optios duty to take command of the century. Other duties included administration casualty returns, equipment requisitions and supervision of training and punishment, for this he received twice the pay of ordinary soldiers.

Cohors Classica ('A cohort serving at sea'):

These men also known as marines, but regarded as common soldiers or milites or milites classiarius to indicate they served at sea. Although these men were auxiliaries they were considered as inferior to land based auxiliaries and men serving in the Legions, and were the lowest paid of the auxiliary forces, and had to serve an extra year longer than a legionary to qualify for citizenship and a retirement allotment.

Remiges (Rowers):

The rowers were not slaves, they were freemen, or freeborn men from the provinces (Peregrini) who did not hold Roman citizenship and were paid a regulation wage. The Remiges were recruited from the provinces that had a seagoing tradition so the crews were mainly Phoenian, Syrian, Egyptian or Greek. The ships officer, the celeusta, was placed in charge of the rowers. To avoid many of the problems of training rowers to man ships with multiple banks of oars, basic training was carried out on land. The training was carried out on tiers of rowing benches set in huge frames, so by the time the rowers took their place in the ships they were skilled enough to handle the oars and knew the commands.

The Immunes (Specialists).

The Beneficiaries Classis: (the quartermaster) Responsibilities included the recruitment and welfare of the ships civilian crew, and was the civilian paymaster. Other duties included procuring the ships stores and ammunition, and supervising the ships maintenance whilst in port.

The Iatros: (the medical officer equivalent to the army Capsarius a doctor or Medicus). The Roman navy had a very proficient medical service similar to that of the army; this was not equalled for 1,400 years.

Cushos Armerum ('Armourer‘):

Whose responsibility was the care and maintenance of the weapons and equipment of the Cohors Classica, and of the ships ballista.

The Nautae: (the helmsman) also known as the gubernatores or pilot. The Nautae and his suburbanites were given the task of steering the ship, depending on the size if the vessel it would have been equipped with either one or two, linked sexillie (side mounted) or quarter rudders mounted on the stern. If the ship was large enough there would have been a team of Nautae working in shifts whilst the ship was at sea. Often the Nautae would be provided with a shelter mounted on the stern. It is worth noting that the stern post mounted rudder appeared around 959 AD.

The Proreta: (the lookout) worked in conjunction with the Naute whilst in shallow waters guiding the ship through shallow waters, or supervising the beaching of the ship.

The celeusta: (the officer in charge of the rowers) was the officer who supervised the rowers relaying, the orders of the navarch regarding speed and direction to the rowers. The speed was governed by using a drum or hammer to provide the rowers with a rhythm to keep the rowers in time and control the speed.

Other ranks were the Fabri who maintained the ship, these men were trained wood and metal workers, thay were supervised by an officer called the Nav Phlax. These were men who acted in a religious capacity however there is no rank or title recorded, so it is possible that other officers took on this duty.

The Ships

To the Romans a warships that had oars was called navis longa or long ship, or navis rostrata after the ship's weapon the ram or rostra. The term for a sail powered trading ship was navis oneraria¹⁷.

Classification -

The ship classification covers only the basic ship types, there were many variations within the basic types mentioned above. There were also many options in equipment, size, and numbers of rowers, it would be fair to say that if a possible variation existed, then someone would have tried it. Also some of the less well known or specialist classes, craft of ship have been omitted for clarity e.g.; very large ships, Imperial pleasure craft and the more obscure or regional vessels.

The average size of a Penteconter was 30 metres long, 4.5 metres wide, unfenced¹⁸. Powered by single banks of rowers, 25 per side with single mast and sail. Originally a ship with up to 50 rowers it developed over the years into a general purpose vessel. Used by both the merchant vessels and the navy as a general purpose and scout vessel. The original long ship, open to the elements with a partial or no deck.

The average size of a Hemiolia was between 15 to 20 metres long, 4 metres wide, fenced. Powered by single or double banks of rowers, 15 per side with single mast and sail. A long light vessel about which little is known, it appears to have been powered by 30 rowers manning 10 oars on each side the extra rowers place on oars, numbered from the bow 3,4,5,6,7 giving the oars in the waist of the ship more power. It has even been speculated that there was a possibility the extra 5 men had a second bank of oars above the others. Its uses are unclear but it appears that it was to light for battle so it is likely to have been a river patrol, scout or dispatch vessel.

The average size of this type of ship was between, 25 to 30 metres long, 4.75 metres wide, fenced. Powered by single banks of rowers, 25 to 50 per side with single mast and sail, with an optional foremast and sail. The ship was almost always equipped with a ram. This vessel was is likely to have taken its name from the Liburnians a people from an area that corresponds with the Dalmatian coast and islands. Before they became a Roman province, they were makers of a type of light fast ship favoured by pirates of the period, known as the libernae galley. It was recorded that some of these vassals could pass navigate water only 1 meter deep. Used in the river fleets due to the shallow draught, the upper deck rails were extended (some were fitted with a partial roof as well) to provide the soldiers and crew protection form missile attack. The Bireme was fundamentally the same type of ship, with the addition of a second bank of rowers situated over the original first bank. This type of vessel would have also have had a compliment of between 30 and 60 marines.

The average size of a Trireme was around 30 to 35 metres long, 4.5 to 5 metres wide, fenced. Powered by three banks of rowers up to 90 per side with main mast and fore mast two sails. The ship was almost always equipped with a ram. A larger version of the Bireme the design of which was also heavily influenced by the liberna galley design. The Trireme had a projecting gallery fitted to each side to house a third bank of rowers, the name Trireme means three oared. In ships with multiple banks of rowers the rowers were housed in several projecting galleries. If viewed from the bow this gave the ship the appearance similar to a two or three storey Tudor house.

The average size of a Quinquereme was around 40 metres long, 5 metres wide, fenced. Powered by three banks of rowers 90 per side the upper banks of oars would have had two rowers per oar. Fitted with a main mast and fore mast and often rigged with two sails. The Quinquereme was very similar to the Trireme and also had a projecting gallery fitted to each side to house a third bank of rowers. The difference between the two types appears to be the numbers of rowers manning the oars. The top two banks or oars had 2 rowers on each oar, whilst the lowest bank had one man per oar. This gave five teams of rowers on three sets of oars, hence the name Quinquereme, meaning five oared. This made sense as the bottom oars were shorter and lighter, the top banks were heaver due to their length and had further to move each stroke. The other advantage was increased speed and distance due to the additional manpower. This vessel would have also have had a compliment of between 100 and 140 marines.

The average size of a Quadriremes was around 35 metres long, 6 to 7 metres wide, fenced. Powered by two banks of rowers, 30 to 40 per side with single mast and sail. This vessel would have also had a compliment of between 70 and 100 marines. Used in the coastal fleets due to the shallow draught and its ability to be beached.

The average size of a Hexareme was around, 35 to 40 metres long 5 to 7 metres wide, fenced. Powered by three banks of rowers, 75 to 100 per side with single mast and sail. The ships are recorded at the battle of Actium on both sides. The confusion is caused by the fact that they were the largest ships in Octavian's fleet and almost¹⁹ the smallest ships in Mark Antony's fleet. The name seems to derive from the numbers of rowers on each oar. It is most likely however that this class of ship was a trireme with two rowers on each oar. It is possible that some had fighting platforms or towers on the bow and stern, similar to a Cog or Carrack of the Middle Ages.

Other Information :

Fenced -

A fully decked ship closed to the elements with cover for both men and goods.

Unfenced -

A ship with a partial or no deck generally with a walkway along the keel with rowing benches to each side. The best known example is the Viking long ship.

Beaching -

A vessel only was done when there were no port facilities and only attempted gradually sloping on sand or shingle beeches. The method was to row the vessel toward the shore at medium speed, as it approached the beach orders were given to the rowers to ship the oars. All crew (not the rowers) and marines were ordered to the rear of the ship, this had the effect of lifting the bows allowing the ship to gently run ashore. Once beached the crew could tie or anchor the ship and lower the gang planks for disembarkation. Beaching was seldom undertaken under sail as it was possible to cause damage the rigging, and the operation was best carried out between the tides to avoid stranding the ship.

Remiges -

They are also flight feathers on the wings of a bird they are set in pairs as if on the rowing benches of a galley.

Special Equipment

The Corvus :

Also known as the Crow, this functioned like a drawbridge; it was a ramp with hand rails that was fitted with a beak like spike that gave the Corvus its name. Mounted on a short mast on the prow the Corvus could be raised and lowered by a system of pulleys. Often mounted on a turntable the Corvus could be swung over the deck of an enemy ship and dropped suddenly allowing the spike to pierce the deck. Once attached the enemy ship was boarded by the soldiers stationed on the Roman ship. If necessary the Corvus could be raised and the enemy ship be rapidly released. The main problem with the Corvus was it made ships unstable in rough weather and there are many reports of vessels capsizing and sinking.

The Harpago :

This was a grappling hook similar to a harpoon it was fired by catapult and when embedded in an enemy ship the attached rope was hauled in. When the ships were alongside the ships marines boarded the enemy vessel. Whilst the catapult was used for the firing of the Harpago it was also utilised as ship board artillery in battle. The Harpago was considered more efficient than the Corvus and eventually replaced it.

The Rostra :

From the beginning the ship's main weapon in battle was the ram or rostra. The Ram this was a large projection of the bows at water level often plated with copper or bronze. This had only one function which was to punch a hole in the side of an enemy ship. The only problem with ramming was getting the ram out the enemy vessel quickly. If the sinking vessel settled in the water it would lock itself on the ram and either pull down the ramming vessel or break the ram off as it sank. It was often the cause of savage fighting, as the only salvation of soldiers and crew on the sinking ship was to take the ship that had rammed them.

The Balistae :

A weapon similar in appearance to a huge crossbow. The main difference was instead of the bow²⁰ it had two levers that acted as torsion springs. The power for the springs was provided by rope or sinew tightly wound to provide springs of enormous power. These weapons were used to fire stone shot or massive arrows or bolts and could also fire incendiary missiles at the enemy ships.