A household in any age consists of a person or people who live in one house, but a household is not necessarily the same as a family. This entry will focus mostly on English households between about 1300 and 1500, but much of the information would also apply to Continental Europe.

It is easy to see that 'household' did not equal 'family', since in the middle ages, a household might be, for instance, a widow living alone (according to the English serf lists of the 13th century, 9% of households fitted this description). In most cases, though, the household would consist of a family but could also include servants, seasonal or permanent workers, and other people in the care of the family, such as wards, orphans and apprentices. This would apply mostly to nobles and richer peasant families, who could afford servants or to take in orphans, whereas for poorer households it would probably just consist of the family.

The Black Death, which hit Europe in the late 1340s, had a significant impact of household sizes. Before the Black Death the average household size was about 5, whereas afterwards it was less than 4.

Structure of the household

Most households had a married couple at their centre. Marriage was very common because it was so easy – all that was needed was a verbal agreement. Men generally married later than women – they were expected to be set up in a trade, on a farm or so on (which might take a few years) before considering marriage so that they could provide for their family; whereas women had their dowries provided by their father. The man might be about 30, the woman in her early 20s or late teens, though ages no doubt varied across Europe. Younger girls were not considered ready to marry.

The large age gap was the reason why there were so many widows, as many fathers died whilst their children were still young. In some cases, the mother was nearer the age of her children than the age of her husband, meaning that she could act as an intermediary in conflicts between the husband and his sons (which were not uncommon, perhaps over land or inheritance).

The centre of the household, therefore, was usually a couple and their children, what we now call a nuclear family. Previously, historians have suggested that large extended families would live together but this is now seen as unlikely. Houses were cheap so many people moved out and set up on their own, especially after the Black Death, when land and jobs were more plentiful and wages were higher.

In contrast, some historians prefer the idea of a so-called 'stem family', which consisted of elderly parents, a son who would inherit the land and house when they died, and his family.

Servants in the household

Servants and workers in noble families were part of the household, in that their master was responsible for their good behaviour, and they were also involved in pursuing any feud the master might be involved in.

In continental Europe, many of the higher servants in noble households were part of the extended family of the lord; however, this was rare in England, as it was seen as a step down.

Servants often spent their whole lives working for the same family, so that family-style ties of attachment could develop. They could have affectionate relationships with their employers, and even be bequeathed something in their will.

Children and families in the household

Very rich households often looked after many children - those of family, servants, wards and so on. They would employ a tutor who would educate the children together, so that bonds of fellowship developed between the children.

It was rare for servants to be married, as it created a second couple in the household, and could therefore be seen as a threat to the stability of the household.

Noble families didn’t care that much about their extended families, as it was the dynastic male line that was most important. Also, alliance by marriage was considered more important than relationships with extended families. Another way they tied people to them was by patronage.

Inheritance

Concepts of inheritance differed over the country. There were two types:

• Impartible inheritance – where one son, probably the eldest (this is called 'primogeniture') gets all the land.

• Partible inheritance – where land was split between all the sons. This led to small land holdings so that younger sons could provide for themselves (at least to some extent) rather than relying on a trade or help - which was not always forthcoming - from the inheriting brother.

Richer families who practiced impartible inheritance could afford to set other sons up in a trade or buy them land. Otherwise, younger sons could try to marry a widow or heiress, thus gaining a share of her money, in which case they could be getting married simply for economic reasons.

Households varied depending on where they were and the wealth and social status of the family, as well as the method of inheritance they chose.