Burial Site Excavation: North America
Created | Updated Sep 21, 2005
Introduction
The native peoples of the America’s have been implementing complex and varied burial practices since first arriving here some 12,000 years ago. They arrived via Beringia, a land bridge formed around 25,000 years ago that connected the European continent ( Siberia) to North America (Alaska).
Burial sites are possibly the most complex and difficult sites for archaeologists to excavate, however they do yield a large amount of information about the culture they represent. Social structure, importance of ceremonies in the culture, religious beliefs, and obviously burial methods can all be interpreted from the findings. What is not represented is the day to day existence of the people and the hardships they faced.
This paper deals with the specifics of excavating burial sites, i.e. techniques, recording of data (how to record and what to record), observations, and identification of burial types. This is a general description due partially to time limits and partially to the variation in burial situations. It would be impossible to give an exact, complete guide to burial excavation because not all burials have the same factors influencing them (both advantageous and detrimental). The level of preservation, for example, varies from site to site and in some situations may require ingenuity and jury-rigging to save the remains or artifacts, therefore not all situations can be accounted for.
Permits
Before any excavation can begin, the proper permits must be obtained. In the case of native sites unless it is threatened, excavation is not usually permitted.
Primary Burials
Human remains that are buried in a fleshy state are considered primary burials. These burials are evidenced by the complete or nearly complete articulation of the remains. Primary burials may indicate a lack of effort on the part of the living to put the dead to “rest” if the remains are in akward or unnatural positions. Also, in times of war where large numbers of bodies have to be buried in a hurry, not as much care is taken in positioning them, and rigor mortis may have set in before they were buried (Brothwell, 1972: 2-3). One site in Halifax, Nova Scotia, consisted of more than 100 primary burials dating to 1749. Several large pits had been dug to inter the remains after a very harsh Nova Scotia winter. Later, in 1756, a church was built over part of the site in memory of the deaths.
Excavation
After a cemetery or burial site has been located the surface should be examined for any indications of disturbance caused by plowing or burrowing. These disturbances may expose subsurface features such as slate pit linings, artifacts, or even human remains. If at all possible the boundaries of the site should be determined in this examination process, before full scale excavation takes place. If however it is not possible to identify the boundaries, test pits, dug systematically should be used.
Testing takes place within the gridlines already in place. The size of these pits will vary, and depend upon the archaeologist. However according to Ubelaker (1978: 8) 1.5m x 1.5m units are commonly used in North America. Test pits not only define the limits of the site they also show stratigraphy, soil types, and archaeological conditions (i.e. post depositional disturbances not seen on the surface). All of these factors influence how a site will be excavated.
When the limits of the site are defined excavation begins. The first step is to remove the top soil to expose the burial pits. The tops of the pits should easily be identified as uniformly shaped patches of stained soil (i.e.: dark, rich, organic soil). Once the top of the burial has been located the soil should be removed to expose its limits. The diameter of the pit should be measured and recorded, as well as the depth below the surface (to determine the soil depositional activities of the area). After this, the pit should be excavated downward level by level. This can be done in one of two ways. First, by removing the soil inside the pit, its shape can be determined and all artifacts can easily be recorded. The advantage to this method is that it leaves the actual pit intact. The second method, clearing a large area around the pit, works well on small burial pits where room to work is minimal. However with the second method of excavation the pit is completely destroyed and the only way to determine the shape of the pit is by measurements taken during excavation.
Secondary Burials
The burial of partially decomposed or fully decomposed human remains is referred to a secondary burials. These burials are evidenced by the lack of complete articulation of the bones. As opposed to primary burials, secondary burial takes place after varying degrees of decomposition. Without the tendons and flesh to hold the bones in place, complete articulation is almost impossible.
There can be some degree of articulation in secondary burials. For example, The Huron, as well as other Iroquoian and Algonkian speakers, held a feast of the dead every 10 to 12 years. At these ceremonies the remains of all of those who died since the last feast were buried in large pits called ossuaries. The bodies of those who died after the last feast were left out exposed to the elements on raised platforms. Depending on the length of time after the last feast the person died, they would be decomposed to a certain degree. Those that died shortly after the last fast would be nothing but bones, while those that died within the last couple of months would only be beginning to decompose. This burial of completely, and partially decomposed bodies, as well those that have yet to break down at all leaves an interesting and easily distinguishable pattern for archaeologists. Some of the remains will be completely dis-articulated, while others will be completely articulated, and still other will be partially dis-articulated (Ubelaker, 1978: 19).
The Choctaw held de-fleshing ceremonies as part of their burial rituals. This de-fleshing ceremony was observed by Bernard Romans ( Author of “A Concise Natural History of East and West Florida”) in 1775 (Ubelaker, 1978: 19). What he saw was a group of old men who traveled from village to village conducting de-fleshing ceremonies. They were described as having extremely long nails on the thumb, fore, and middle fingers of both hands. These nails were used to strip the flesh off the dead. The condition of the bodies depended on how long it took for the old men to get to the village. A large fire was built and the flesh that was removed from the bodies was thrown into it. The old men appear to have been very meticulous in their job, being sure to remove all the flesh. After the flesh was removed the skulls were painted red and the remains were put into boxes and stored in the loft of a hut that had been built for that purpose alone. After a year in the loft the box was brought out, the family mourned once more, the paint on the skull was refreshed and then the box was buried.
The Adena were using both primary and cremation in their burial mounds. The elite were buried in a primary state ands the lower classes were cremated and put in the mounds with the elite. The dead were often piled one on top of the other in layers separated by soil in the mounds. The majority of the mounds were built up over time with many burials taking place, while in some cases large mounds were made for a single person, probably a ruler (Fagan, 1995: 332).
Excavation
The initial stages of excavation differ little from those for primary burials. However when dealing with ossuaries the complexity increases, as does the amount of observation, recording, photographing, and drawing. In some cases, for example Cow Point (Sanger 1973: 88), it is indeterminable whether the burials are primary or secondary. This is especially true in the Maritimes where bone (and organics in general) preservation is low or non existent due to acidic soils. However, in the case of shellfish cultivation, the calcium in the shells assists in the preservation of organic material. As with the Cow Point site, if only a few pieces of the skeleton, like the teeth and bones from Locus1b ,survive post depositional processes it is impossible to tell whether the body was articulated or not.
Cremation
The incineration (or cremation) of human remains prior to interment is referred to as a cremation burial. The remains, however, need not be completely burned to be considered a cremation. Partially burned and merely scorched bones also come under the heading of cremation. The four main goals of excavating a cremation burial according to Ubelaker (1978: 33) are; 1) careful recording of the position of every bone fragment in the pit as well as the associated artifacts, 2) the identification and removal of all bone fragments and associated artifacts, 3) determine whether the place of interment was the place of cremation, and 4) careful observation of any details relevant to the reconstruction of the firing procedure.
The cremation of human remains can take place either in the pit they were buried in or in another area and transported to the pit. If the remains were incinerated within the pit the soil of the pit and the surrounding area should be discolored from the heat, and there should be charcoal remains within the pit. The most relevant of these two characteristics is the soil discoloration, because it is possible for charcoal to get into the pit when the remains were transferred. This fact leaves the provenience of the charcoal questionable unless large quantities exist.
The process of cremation can cause major changes in the bones that make it difficult to identify those remains. The exposure to extreme heat causes the bones to shrink, which can lead to false age and sex conclusions. However some of the changes are beneficial to the archaeologist attempting to determine the process of cremation. For example it can be determined whether the bones had been dried before incineration or were green. Green refers to bones that have not had the flesh removed for long, the bones are still moist. If the bones had been dried they split longitudinally and crack much like dry wood when burned. If, on the other hand, the bones are green they warp, fracture transversely ,and split lengthwise (Brothwell, 1972: 16-18).
Excavation
Excavation procedures for cremation burials are similar to those of primary and secondary burials, with the exception of an increase in care when identifying and removing the remains, as well as an increase in observations and photographs. As with any excavation, charcoal samples collected for carbon dating should be contained in either aluminum foil ( shiny side out) or in sealed, sterile containers for transport to the lab.
Description of Burials
The most important part of excavation is the recording of location, deposition, position, orientation, measurements and depth of the skeleton and artifacts located within each pit. Photographs should be taken to visually record the location and position of the skeletal remains and associated artifacts.
The following is a description of how the above should be recorded in primary burial and secondary burial contexts (After Ubelaker, 1978: 13-18). It should be noted that the majority of the following descriptions are oriented towards primary burial excavation, however they can be applied to secondary and cremation burials.
Location
Every bone and artifact should be recorded horizontally and vertically. Skeletal remains should be vertically recorded from the highest point and the lowest point on the bone. The distance from each of the artifacts and bones to reference points such as a corner of the pit should also be measured. Artifacts may be measured from points on the skeleton, for example a projectile point may be 2.3 cm from the left patella and 53.6 cm from the left radius. The position of the point can be triangulated with these measurements if the position of the skeleton is carefully recorded. However, it is best to employ a combination of these techniques to ensure accuracy in recording.
Deposition
This term refers to the position of the body in the ground. The remains can be laid on their backs, faces, or sides. They can be sitting or standing as well.
Position
In North America human remains buried in a primary state are usually in either a flexed or extended position. Flexed refers to the fetal position, where the knees are flexed up against the chest. Extended refers to the legs being extended or straight. Ubelaker (1978: 14) also defines a semi-flexed and tightly flexed position. Semi-flexed is an intermediate position between extended and flexed. Tightly flexed is an extreme flexed position. The position of the arms and skull should also be recorded. Arms can be folded against the chest or on the sides of the skeleton or resting on the pelvis, e.t.c. The skull can be positioned facing any direction.
Orientation
The orientation of the skeleton, if in horizontal position, refers to the direction in which the skull is facing in relation to a line between it and the center of the pelvis. If in a sitting position the orientation is the direction the skeleton is facing. Orientation should be recorded using compass directions or land marks.
Depth
Depth can be recorded in two ways. First, a line level and a meter stick can be used to determine the depth below the surface. Second, a transit and a stadia rod can be used to determine the depth below datum.
Measurement
Skeletal measurements should include maximum length, width, and any other dimensions deemed relevant to the archaeologist. Further measurements should be taken in a proper lab facility.
Observations
Careful observations and recording of those observations are crucial to getting all of the data available. Some things that need to be noted are any abnormalities in the bones due to disease or defect. Evidence of these abnormalities can be destroyed during recovery of the skeletal material from the matrix. Soil samples should be taken from under and around the skeleton as well.
Soil Samples
Soil samples should be taken from all burial sites, whether they are primary, secondary, or cremation. Information about the time of year the bodies were buried can be determined from pollen and seeds within the matrix. Large amounts of grains, for example, may indicate a deliberate placing within the grave as an offering. These inclusions may also give clues to the diet of the people. A series of screens should be used to separate any artifacts or ecofacts contained within the soil. An excellent technique for extracting seeds and grains from the samples is floatation. Floatation works on the principal that seeds, grains, and small bones (human or animal) are lighter than the soil and will float in water. These objects can be skimmed off the surface of the water and examined.
Not only should soil samples be taken, screened and analyzed, but all soil removed from the site should be screened for artifacts or bones missed by the archaeologists. Small bones such as those of infants, birds, and small rodents are easily missed. As are artifacts like glass beads, bone pins, and bone needles. Screening and floatation can usually recover these materials.
Conclusion
As with any archaeological site, mortuary sites should be meticulously excavated and recorded. The information gathered may be all that is left of the site. If proper techniques are implemented then the interpretations made based on the data recorded will be as accurate as possible.
REFERENCES CITED
Brothwell, D. R. Digging Up Bones. British Museum (Natural History), Publication no. 704,
1972 p.2-3, 16-18.
Fagan, Brian M. People of The Earth: An Introduction to World Prehistry. Eighth Edition,
1995 Lindbriar Corp., p. 21, 332.
Sanger, David. Cow Point: An Archaic Cemetery in New Brunswick. National Museum of Man
1973 Paper no. 12, p. 88.
Ubelaker, Douglas H. Human Skeletal Remains: Excavation, Analysis, Interpretation. Manuals
1978 on Archaeology no. 2, Smithsonian Institution, p. 8, 13-
19, 33.
The native peoples of the America’s have been implementing complex and varied burial practices since first arriving here some 12,000 years ago. They arrived via Beringia, a land bridge formed around 25,000 years ago that connected the European continent ( Siberia) to North America (Alaska).
Burial sites are possibly the most complex and difficult sites for archaeologists to excavate, however they do yield a large amount of information about the culture they represent. Social structure, importance of ceremonies in the culture, religious beliefs, and obviously burial methods can all be interpreted from the findings. What is not represented is the day to day existence of the people and the hardships they faced.
This paper deals with the specifics of excavating burial sites, i.e. techniques, recording of data (how to record and what to record), observations, and identification of burial types. This is a general description due partially to time limits and partially to the variation in burial situations. It would be impossible to give an exact, complete guide to burial excavation because not all burials have the same factors influencing them (both advantageous and detrimental). The level of preservation, for example, varies from site to site and in some situations may require ingenuity and jury-rigging to save the remains or artifacts, therefore not all situations can be accounted for.
Permits
Before any excavation can begin, the proper permits must be obtained. In the case of native sites unless it is threatened, excavation is not usually permitted.
Primary Burials
Human remains that are buried in a fleshy state are considered primary burials. These burials are evidenced by the complete or nearly complete articulation of the remains. Primary burials may indicate a lack of effort on the part of the living to put the dead to “rest” if the remains are in akward or unnatural positions. Also, in times of war where large numbers of bodies have to be buried in a hurry, not as much care is taken in positioning them, and rigor mortis may have set in before they were buried (Brothwell, 1972: 2-3). One site in Halifax, Nova Scotia, consisted of more than 100 primary burials dating to 1749. Several large pits had been dug to inter the remains after a very harsh Nova Scotia winter. Later, in 1756, a church was built over part of the site in memory of the deaths.
Excavation
After a cemetery or burial site has been located the surface should be examined for any indications of disturbance caused by plowing or burrowing. These disturbances may expose subsurface features such as slate pit linings, artifacts, or even human remains. If at all possible the boundaries of the site should be determined in this examination process, before full scale excavation takes place. If however it is not possible to identify the boundaries, test pits, dug systematically should be used.
Testing takes place within the gridlines already in place. The size of these pits will vary, and depend upon the archaeologist. However according to Ubelaker (1978: 8) 1.5m x 1.5m units are commonly used in North America. Test pits not only define the limits of the site they also show stratigraphy, soil types, and archaeological conditions (i.e. post depositional disturbances not seen on the surface). All of these factors influence how a site will be excavated.
When the limits of the site are defined excavation begins. The first step is to remove the top soil to expose the burial pits. The tops of the pits should easily be identified as uniformly shaped patches of stained soil (i.e.: dark, rich, organic soil). Once the top of the burial has been located the soil should be removed to expose its limits. The diameter of the pit should be measured and recorded, as well as the depth below the surface (to determine the soil depositional activities of the area). After this, the pit should be excavated downward level by level. This can be done in one of two ways. First, by removing the soil inside the pit, its shape can be determined and all artifacts can easily be recorded. The advantage to this method is that it leaves the actual pit intact. The second method, clearing a large area around the pit, works well on small burial pits where room to work is minimal. However with the second method of excavation the pit is completely destroyed and the only way to determine the shape of the pit is by measurements taken during excavation.
Secondary Burials
The burial of partially decomposed or fully decomposed human remains is referred to a secondary burials. These burials are evidenced by the lack of complete articulation of the bones. As opposed to primary burials, secondary burial takes place after varying degrees of decomposition. Without the tendons and flesh to hold the bones in place, complete articulation is almost impossible.
There can be some degree of articulation in secondary burials. For example, The Huron, as well as other Iroquoian and Algonkian speakers, held a feast of the dead every 10 to 12 years. At these ceremonies the remains of all of those who died since the last feast were buried in large pits called ossuaries. The bodies of those who died after the last feast were left out exposed to the elements on raised platforms. Depending on the length of time after the last feast the person died, they would be decomposed to a certain degree. Those that died shortly after the last fast would be nothing but bones, while those that died within the last couple of months would only be beginning to decompose. This burial of completely, and partially decomposed bodies, as well those that have yet to break down at all leaves an interesting and easily distinguishable pattern for archaeologists. Some of the remains will be completely dis-articulated, while others will be completely articulated, and still other will be partially dis-articulated (Ubelaker, 1978: 19).
The Choctaw held de-fleshing ceremonies as part of their burial rituals. This de-fleshing ceremony was observed by Bernard Romans ( Author of “A Concise Natural History of East and West Florida”) in 1775 (Ubelaker, 1978: 19). What he saw was a group of old men who traveled from village to village conducting de-fleshing ceremonies. They were described as having extremely long nails on the thumb, fore, and middle fingers of both hands. These nails were used to strip the flesh off the dead. The condition of the bodies depended on how long it took for the old men to get to the village. A large fire was built and the flesh that was removed from the bodies was thrown into it. The old men appear to have been very meticulous in their job, being sure to remove all the flesh. After the flesh was removed the skulls were painted red and the remains were put into boxes and stored in the loft of a hut that had been built for that purpose alone. After a year in the loft the box was brought out, the family mourned once more, the paint on the skull was refreshed and then the box was buried.
The Adena were using both primary and cremation in their burial mounds. The elite were buried in a primary state ands the lower classes were cremated and put in the mounds with the elite. The dead were often piled one on top of the other in layers separated by soil in the mounds. The majority of the mounds were built up over time with many burials taking place, while in some cases large mounds were made for a single person, probably a ruler (Fagan, 1995: 332).
Excavation
The initial stages of excavation differ little from those for primary burials. However when dealing with ossuaries the complexity increases, as does the amount of observation, recording, photographing, and drawing. In some cases, for example Cow Point (Sanger 1973: 88), it is indeterminable whether the burials are primary or secondary. This is especially true in the Maritimes where bone (and organics in general) preservation is low or non existent due to acidic soils. However, in the case of shellfish cultivation, the calcium in the shells assists in the preservation of organic material. As with the Cow Point site, if only a few pieces of the skeleton, like the teeth and bones from Locus1b ,survive post depositional processes it is impossible to tell whether the body was articulated or not.
Cremation
The incineration (or cremation) of human remains prior to interment is referred to as a cremation burial. The remains, however, need not be completely burned to be considered a cremation. Partially burned and merely scorched bones also come under the heading of cremation. The four main goals of excavating a cremation burial according to Ubelaker (1978: 33) are; 1) careful recording of the position of every bone fragment in the pit as well as the associated artifacts, 2) the identification and removal of all bone fragments and associated artifacts, 3) determine whether the place of interment was the place of cremation, and 4) careful observation of any details relevant to the reconstruction of the firing procedure.
The cremation of human remains can take place either in the pit they were buried in or in another area and transported to the pit. If the remains were incinerated within the pit the soil of the pit and the surrounding area should be discolored from the heat, and there should be charcoal remains within the pit. The most relevant of these two characteristics is the soil discoloration, because it is possible for charcoal to get into the pit when the remains were transferred. This fact leaves the provenience of the charcoal questionable unless large quantities exist.
The process of cremation can cause major changes in the bones that make it difficult to identify those remains. The exposure to extreme heat causes the bones to shrink, which can lead to false age and sex conclusions. However some of the changes are beneficial to the archaeologist attempting to determine the process of cremation. For example it can be determined whether the bones had been dried before incineration or were green. Green refers to bones that have not had the flesh removed for long, the bones are still moist. If the bones had been dried they split longitudinally and crack much like dry wood when burned. If, on the other hand, the bones are green they warp, fracture transversely ,and split lengthwise (Brothwell, 1972: 16-18).
Excavation
Excavation procedures for cremation burials are similar to those of primary and secondary burials, with the exception of an increase in care when identifying and removing the remains, as well as an increase in observations and photographs. As with any excavation, charcoal samples collected for carbon dating should be contained in either aluminum foil ( shiny side out) or in sealed, sterile containers for transport to the lab.
Description of Burials
The most important part of excavation is the recording of location, deposition, position, orientation, measurements and depth of the skeleton and artifacts located within each pit. Photographs should be taken to visually record the location and position of the skeletal remains and associated artifacts.
The following is a description of how the above should be recorded in primary burial and secondary burial contexts (After Ubelaker, 1978: 13-18). It should be noted that the majority of the following descriptions are oriented towards primary burial excavation, however they can be applied to secondary and cremation burials.
Location
Every bone and artifact should be recorded horizontally and vertically. Skeletal remains should be vertically recorded from the highest point and the lowest point on the bone. The distance from each of the artifacts and bones to reference points such as a corner of the pit should also be measured. Artifacts may be measured from points on the skeleton, for example a projectile point may be 2.3 cm from the left patella and 53.6 cm from the left radius. The position of the point can be triangulated with these measurements if the position of the skeleton is carefully recorded. However, it is best to employ a combination of these techniques to ensure accuracy in recording.
Deposition
This term refers to the position of the body in the ground. The remains can be laid on their backs, faces, or sides. They can be sitting or standing as well.
Position
In North America human remains buried in a primary state are usually in either a flexed or extended position. Flexed refers to the fetal position, where the knees are flexed up against the chest. Extended refers to the legs being extended or straight. Ubelaker (1978: 14) also defines a semi-flexed and tightly flexed position. Semi-flexed is an intermediate position between extended and flexed. Tightly flexed is an extreme flexed position. The position of the arms and skull should also be recorded. Arms can be folded against the chest or on the sides of the skeleton or resting on the pelvis, e.t.c. The skull can be positioned facing any direction.
Orientation
The orientation of the skeleton, if in horizontal position, refers to the direction in which the skull is facing in relation to a line between it and the center of the pelvis. If in a sitting position the orientation is the direction the skeleton is facing. Orientation should be recorded using compass directions or land marks.
Depth
Depth can be recorded in two ways. First, a line level and a meter stick can be used to determine the depth below the surface. Second, a transit and a stadia rod can be used to determine the depth below datum.
Measurement
Skeletal measurements should include maximum length, width, and any other dimensions deemed relevant to the archaeologist. Further measurements should be taken in a proper lab facility.
Observations
Careful observations and recording of those observations are crucial to getting all of the data available. Some things that need to be noted are any abnormalities in the bones due to disease or defect. Evidence of these abnormalities can be destroyed during recovery of the skeletal material from the matrix. Soil samples should be taken from under and around the skeleton as well.
Soil Samples
Soil samples should be taken from all burial sites, whether they are primary, secondary, or cremation. Information about the time of year the bodies were buried can be determined from pollen and seeds within the matrix. Large amounts of grains, for example, may indicate a deliberate placing within the grave as an offering. These inclusions may also give clues to the diet of the people. A series of screens should be used to separate any artifacts or ecofacts contained within the soil. An excellent technique for extracting seeds and grains from the samples is floatation. Floatation works on the principal that seeds, grains, and small bones (human or animal) are lighter than the soil and will float in water. These objects can be skimmed off the surface of the water and examined.
Not only should soil samples be taken, screened and analyzed, but all soil removed from the site should be screened for artifacts or bones missed by the archaeologists. Small bones such as those of infants, birds, and small rodents are easily missed. As are artifacts like glass beads, bone pins, and bone needles. Screening and floatation can usually recover these materials.
Conclusion
As with any archaeological site, mortuary sites should be meticulously excavated and recorded. The information gathered may be all that is left of the site. If proper techniques are implemented then the interpretations made based on the data recorded will be as accurate as possible.
REFERENCES CITED
Brothwell, D. R. Digging Up Bones. British Museum (Natural History), Publication no. 704,
1972 p.2-3, 16-18.
Fagan, Brian M. People of The Earth: An Introduction to World Prehistry. Eighth Edition,
1995 Lindbriar Corp., p. 21, 332.
Sanger, David. Cow Point: An Archaic Cemetery in New Brunswick. National Museum of Man
1973 Paper no. 12, p. 88.
Ubelaker, Douglas H. Human Skeletal Remains: Excavation, Analysis, Interpretation. Manuals
1978 on Archaeology no. 2, Smithsonian Institution, p. 8, 13-
19, 33.
