A Brief History of India and Pakistan and their Politics
Created | Updated May 1, 2003
Beginning of Civilization
Starting around the year 6000 BCE to the year 4000 BCE, the Harappan civilization formed in the Indus river valley in present day Pakistan. These people continued to develop. They began to trade with nearby Mesopotamia by 2300 BCE and built two great cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Like most early groups, the Harappans were animists and worshipers of fertility. Strangely, this civilization mysteriously disappeared around 1800-1700 BCE, probably due to some change in the weather or the flow of the Indus river.
Aryan Invaders
Around 1500 BCE, a group called the Aryans invaded the Indus valley from the northwest. This was a polytheistic civilization ruled by tribal rajas, or kings. As they settled, the Aryans showed a very war-like tendency. When disaster affected the Indus valley again in 1000 BCE, the Aryans moved east and conquered the fertile Ganges River valley. Further attempts at expansion, mostly south against the native Dravidians, failed.
After settling down and becoming farmers, the Aryans developed their own society, a society with the caste system. In this system the priestly order of Brahmins and fighting aristocrats called Kshatriyas ruled over other groups. By 600 BCE, the Aryans were trading with Arabia and China. Further, the Hindu religion formed from a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian religions.
Yet, the Aryans remained divided politically and religiously. New groups, such as the Jains and the Buddhists rejected orthodox Hinduism and created their own religions by 500 BCE.
Alexander’s Legacy and the Dark Age
In 327 BCE, Alexander the Great of Macedonia conquered much of northern India, beginning a Greek era. After Alexander’s death, the Mauryan empire rose in the north, conquering the Indus and some Persian lands. Expansion continued when the emperor Asoka conquered much of the east coast, bringing Buddhism to all of India and Lanka (Sri Lanka). After the decline of the Mauryan empire in 185 BCE, the Greek state of Bactria took over much of northern India.
Control of Bactria determined power in India for several centuries. First the Parthians and then the Kushans overran these areas, making the north unstable. Meanwhile, the pre-Aryan Dravidians prospered in the south. Eventually, the conquered settled and intermingled with the natives and the Gupta empire arose by 380 CE. The Guptas prospered and brought in a Golden Age when Hinduism ruled. Yet, like all empires, division gave way with the invasion of outsiders, this time the Hephthalites, and India was left a patchwork of small, bickering states by 500 CE.
The Muslim Invasions
The Hephthalites were defeated by the Persians and Turks soon after their conquest of India. In the vacuum, several small empires attempted to take control, such as the Harsha in the north and the Pallava in the south. Tensions with Muslims rose as Hinduism was criticized as idolatrous and southern pirates raided Arab shipping. Muslims raided in the north from 800-1150 CE.
Finally the Islamic empire of Ghurid invaded, taking Delhi and the Ganges River by 1202 CE. The Muslims control the north for several years, even as Islam is becoming more divisive, due to a lack of unity among the Indians.
The Mughal Empire
The Sultanate of Delhi was destroyed when the Mongol/Turkish forces from Samarkand attacked their fellow Muslims for being too lenient with Hindus and Buddhists in 1396. Their leader, Tamarlane, became the emperor of a new Mughal (Indian for Mongol) empire. Mughal power over India remained unsure until Tamarlane’s descendent, Babur, reconquered the north in 1526.
The Mughals often had difficulties with other Muslim states. Babur’s son nearly lost the empire to Persia. Ackbar the Great, Babur’s grandson, extended the borders of the empire considerably allowing unprecedented integration with non-Muslims. Yet, after Ackbar, a series of weak monarchs lost militarily to the Persians and treated the Hindus, the only religious group large enough to survive Muslim rule, very poorly.
Changes in the Mughal Empire
During Muslim rule, new groups had emerged in Indian society. First, a new religion, whose members were called Sikhs, developed in the mid-1500’s. Of Hindu origins, this religion was monotheistic, hated the caste system, and opposed the Muslims. Fearing Islamic mistreatment, the Sikhs became a militaristic society.
Also during this period, the first Europeans began to reach India. The Portuguese set up a outpost in Goa for trade, but were driven out by a British fleet in 1619. The Mughal emperors, fearing British naval power and wishing to trade, accepted greater trade with the British East India Company. During this period, India was eager for westerners to come, bringing technological and military advances.
The British Invasion
The British East India Company continued to buy its way deeper into India, including the purchase of duty-free trade rights in 1717. Yet the Mughals eventually recognized the British threat, capturing the British stronghold of Calcutta in 1757. In response, the British sent Robert Clive with a redcoat army, supported by Hindus, to deal with the Mughals. The empire was defeated after Clive bought off its soldiers at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. A puppet emperor was put on the throne.
The British, with the government now controlling the East India Company, embarked on a series of wars that expanded their dominions in India. The Seven Years’ War resulted with the ejection of the French from India. In 1799, the British defeated the Tipu Sultan of Mysore, a southern nation belligerent to Britain. Sensing growing British power, a confederation of the Mahratta kingdoms in central India attacked but lost completely in 1805 and 1819.
Britain formally took over possession of India in 1833 and consolidated power. Power was sustained with a massive British civil-service system and an army made up of native Indians.
The British and Independence
Britain went into a period of attempting to control the mountainous north of India. After losing its bid on Afghanistan, the British defeated the war-like Sikhs. Fighting wars in 1846 and 1849, the British held firm control over the Indus and Kashmir regions. Even the massive Indian Mutiny of 1858 failed to dislodge British control.
When military resistance ended in the nineteenth century, civil resistance to the British began in the twentieth. Men like Mohandus Gandhi led the people in civil disobedience. Unfortunately, hatred bubbled over into race riots, leading to the massacre of a Hindu crowd in 1919.
Finally, after the end of World War Two, the liberal British government decided to withdraw from India. As negotiations ensued, and a public election proceeded, Muslims decided that they could not trust a Hindu-majority government and wanted a “pure land” (or pakistan) for Muslims. Finally, as the British withdrew, the states of India and Pakistan (including Bangladesh) were created. Ten million people began long treks out of territory controlled by the other religion, leading to massive slayings which stopped a million people from ever reaching their destinations.
India and Pakistan
India moved quickly toward development. Creating a constitution by 1950, the Indian government launched several successful plans to build up the country. Unfortunately, India’s soaring population negated most positive effects. Furthermore, India began to be active in world politics for its own benefit. India seized the Portuguese port of Goa and refused to return Tibetan lands seized by the British. Being next to China, India remained outside of the Cold War conflict and used Tibet as a shield against China, eventually leading to a brief border war with China in the sixties.
Unlike India, Pakistan suffered from severe political disunity. A constitution was only created in 1956 and included references to the Quran. In 1959, a military coup led by General Khan seized the government. Hoping for international support, Khan continued in Pakistan’s support of the United States. Growing in power and wealth after siding with the U.S., Pakistan attempted to take the heavily Muslim province of Kashmir from India with guerrilla soldiers after India’s 1962 fight with China. The plan failed and India invaded Pakistan in retaliation, the war ending in a stalemate.
After this war, India chose its first female leader, Indira Gandhi, for the office of Prime Minister in 1966. She was very popular until she was found to be suppressing the press and pushing unpopular reforms like forced sterilization, she lost the election of 1977. She managed to come into power again in 1979, only to be assassinated by a Sikh terrorist in 1984. Indira Gandhi left India’s government divided.
Sources:
InterKnowledge’s Geographia. <http://www.geographia.com/india/india02.htm>
Itihaas: The History of India. <http://www.itihaas.com/>
Kamat’s Potpourri: The Timeless Theater Archives. <http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/>
Smitha, Frank. World History. <http://www.fsmitha.com/index.html>
World History. Glencoe McGraw-Hill Company, 2003.
(This paper's factual data is based solely on the sources cited here. They were corollated and paraphrased into an original essay by the writer. Standard methods of obtaining this information legally were maintained at all times.)
Starting around the year 6000 BCE to the year 4000 BCE, the Harappan civilization formed in the Indus river valley in present day Pakistan. These people continued to develop. They began to trade with nearby Mesopotamia by 2300 BCE and built two great cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Like most early groups, the Harappans were animists and worshipers of fertility. Strangely, this civilization mysteriously disappeared around 1800-1700 BCE, probably due to some change in the weather or the flow of the Indus river.
Aryan Invaders
Around 1500 BCE, a group called the Aryans invaded the Indus valley from the northwest. This was a polytheistic civilization ruled by tribal rajas, or kings. As they settled, the Aryans showed a very war-like tendency. When disaster affected the Indus valley again in 1000 BCE, the Aryans moved east and conquered the fertile Ganges River valley. Further attempts at expansion, mostly south against the native Dravidians, failed.
After settling down and becoming farmers, the Aryans developed their own society, a society with the caste system. In this system the priestly order of Brahmins and fighting aristocrats called Kshatriyas ruled over other groups. By 600 BCE, the Aryans were trading with Arabia and China. Further, the Hindu religion formed from a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian religions.
Yet, the Aryans remained divided politically and religiously. New groups, such as the Jains and the Buddhists rejected orthodox Hinduism and created their own religions by 500 BCE.
Alexander’s Legacy and the Dark Age
In 327 BCE, Alexander the Great of Macedonia conquered much of northern India, beginning a Greek era. After Alexander’s death, the Mauryan empire rose in the north, conquering the Indus and some Persian lands. Expansion continued when the emperor Asoka conquered much of the east coast, bringing Buddhism to all of India and Lanka (Sri Lanka). After the decline of the Mauryan empire in 185 BCE, the Greek state of Bactria took over much of northern India.
Control of Bactria determined power in India for several centuries. First the Parthians and then the Kushans overran these areas, making the north unstable. Meanwhile, the pre-Aryan Dravidians prospered in the south. Eventually, the conquered settled and intermingled with the natives and the Gupta empire arose by 380 CE. The Guptas prospered and brought in a Golden Age when Hinduism ruled. Yet, like all empires, division gave way with the invasion of outsiders, this time the Hephthalites, and India was left a patchwork of small, bickering states by 500 CE.
The Muslim Invasions
The Hephthalites were defeated by the Persians and Turks soon after their conquest of India. In the vacuum, several small empires attempted to take control, such as the Harsha in the north and the Pallava in the south. Tensions with Muslims rose as Hinduism was criticized as idolatrous and southern pirates raided Arab shipping. Muslims raided in the north from 800-1150 CE.
Finally the Islamic empire of Ghurid invaded, taking Delhi and the Ganges River by 1202 CE. The Muslims control the north for several years, even as Islam is becoming more divisive, due to a lack of unity among the Indians.
The Mughal Empire
The Sultanate of Delhi was destroyed when the Mongol/Turkish forces from Samarkand attacked their fellow Muslims for being too lenient with Hindus and Buddhists in 1396. Their leader, Tamarlane, became the emperor of a new Mughal (Indian for Mongol) empire. Mughal power over India remained unsure until Tamarlane’s descendent, Babur, reconquered the north in 1526.
The Mughals often had difficulties with other Muslim states. Babur’s son nearly lost the empire to Persia. Ackbar the Great, Babur’s grandson, extended the borders of the empire considerably allowing unprecedented integration with non-Muslims. Yet, after Ackbar, a series of weak monarchs lost militarily to the Persians and treated the Hindus, the only religious group large enough to survive Muslim rule, very poorly.
Changes in the Mughal Empire
During Muslim rule, new groups had emerged in Indian society. First, a new religion, whose members were called Sikhs, developed in the mid-1500’s. Of Hindu origins, this religion was monotheistic, hated the caste system, and opposed the Muslims. Fearing Islamic mistreatment, the Sikhs became a militaristic society.
Also during this period, the first Europeans began to reach India. The Portuguese set up a outpost in Goa for trade, but were driven out by a British fleet in 1619. The Mughal emperors, fearing British naval power and wishing to trade, accepted greater trade with the British East India Company. During this period, India was eager for westerners to come, bringing technological and military advances.
The British Invasion
The British East India Company continued to buy its way deeper into India, including the purchase of duty-free trade rights in 1717. Yet the Mughals eventually recognized the British threat, capturing the British stronghold of Calcutta in 1757. In response, the British sent Robert Clive with a redcoat army, supported by Hindus, to deal with the Mughals. The empire was defeated after Clive bought off its soldiers at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. A puppet emperor was put on the throne.
The British, with the government now controlling the East India Company, embarked on a series of wars that expanded their dominions in India. The Seven Years’ War resulted with the ejection of the French from India. In 1799, the British defeated the Tipu Sultan of Mysore, a southern nation belligerent to Britain. Sensing growing British power, a confederation of the Mahratta kingdoms in central India attacked but lost completely in 1805 and 1819.
Britain formally took over possession of India in 1833 and consolidated power. Power was sustained with a massive British civil-service system and an army made up of native Indians.
The British and Independence
Britain went into a period of attempting to control the mountainous north of India. After losing its bid on Afghanistan, the British defeated the war-like Sikhs. Fighting wars in 1846 and 1849, the British held firm control over the Indus and Kashmir regions. Even the massive Indian Mutiny of 1858 failed to dislodge British control.
When military resistance ended in the nineteenth century, civil resistance to the British began in the twentieth. Men like Mohandus Gandhi led the people in civil disobedience. Unfortunately, hatred bubbled over into race riots, leading to the massacre of a Hindu crowd in 1919.
Finally, after the end of World War Two, the liberal British government decided to withdraw from India. As negotiations ensued, and a public election proceeded, Muslims decided that they could not trust a Hindu-majority government and wanted a “pure land” (or pakistan) for Muslims. Finally, as the British withdrew, the states of India and Pakistan (including Bangladesh) were created. Ten million people began long treks out of territory controlled by the other religion, leading to massive slayings which stopped a million people from ever reaching their destinations.
India and Pakistan
India moved quickly toward development. Creating a constitution by 1950, the Indian government launched several successful plans to build up the country. Unfortunately, India’s soaring population negated most positive effects. Furthermore, India began to be active in world politics for its own benefit. India seized the Portuguese port of Goa and refused to return Tibetan lands seized by the British. Being next to China, India remained outside of the Cold War conflict and used Tibet as a shield against China, eventually leading to a brief border war with China in the sixties.
Unlike India, Pakistan suffered from severe political disunity. A constitution was only created in 1956 and included references to the Quran. In 1959, a military coup led by General Khan seized the government. Hoping for international support, Khan continued in Pakistan’s support of the United States. Growing in power and wealth after siding with the U.S., Pakistan attempted to take the heavily Muslim province of Kashmir from India with guerrilla soldiers after India’s 1962 fight with China. The plan failed and India invaded Pakistan in retaliation, the war ending in a stalemate.
After this war, India chose its first female leader, Indira Gandhi, for the office of Prime Minister in 1966. She was very popular until she was found to be suppressing the press and pushing unpopular reforms like forced sterilization, she lost the election of 1977. She managed to come into power again in 1979, only to be assassinated by a Sikh terrorist in 1984. Indira Gandhi left India’s government divided.
Sources:
InterKnowledge’s Geographia. <http://www.geographia.com/india/india02.htm>
Itihaas: The History of India. <http://www.itihaas.com/>
Kamat’s Potpourri: The Timeless Theater Archives. <http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/>
Smitha, Frank. World History. <http://www.fsmitha.com/index.html>
World History. Glencoe McGraw-Hill Company, 2003.
(This paper's factual data is based solely on the sources cited here. They were corollated and paraphrased into an original essay by the writer. Standard methods of obtaining this information legally were maintained at all times.)
