The Fountain Pen

1 Conversation


For many people, the fountain pen is the most sophisticated pen to use1. There is something very sensual about writing with a pen that uses liquid ink. Indeed, when writing with a fountain pen, the nib seems to positively glide across the page with such effortless grace as to make the physical act of writing a joy. These days, if you prefer, you can buy plastic cartridges for a fountain pen. These little fellows practically eliminate any chance of a mess2. In the era of mass production, a $100-plus writing instrument might well seem an extravagance. Yet a good fountain pen will last a lifetime. It lends character to the signature of its user, and makes writing a much more thoughtful experience.


But how did such a pen develop? In order to fully understand the development of the fountain pen, a general understanding of the workings of the fountain pen is needed. The mechanics of a fountain pen may be broken down into three parts: the reservoir, the feed system and the nib.

The Mechanics of the Fountain Pen

The Reservoir


The reservoir or ink storage mechanism of the pen can function in one of two ways:

  • The first method is to fit an ink cartridge. Currently, most pen makers create their pens to be compatible with their brand of cartridges only. All manufacturers provide a variety of colours of high quality inks. The advantage to using cartridges is convenience.
  • The other method is to use a piston converter, which is a recent development in fountain pen technology. The converter is a closed container. It has a threaded rod running down the centre of its chamber and a plunger at the end. Holding the plunger in the downward position, closest to the nib section of the pen, a knob twists the top of the converter. This siphons the ink into the container, when the nib is immersed in a bottle of ink. The advantage to filling the pen via a converter is to use bottled inks manufactured by other companies.

The Feed


The feed system regulates the flow of ink to the nib by means of a series of canals and grooves. This system ensures that the least possible leakage occurs with the greatest amount of even flow. The feed, in conjunction with the nib, balances the effects of gravity with atmospheric pressure and capillary action. The capillary action ensures the ink in the pen is held in position. This counters any changes in air pressure, if the air pressure becomes lower than that of the ink reservoir. Alternatively, heat from the writer’s hand may increase the internal pressure above that of the air pressure.


Most fountain pens are fitted with a series of secondary canals, which regulates surplus ink that may form when atmospheric imbalance occurs. Varying the size of the canals and conduits achieves the perfect balance necessary.


Feeds are manufactured by injecting synthetic resins into moulds. In high-quality pens, ebonite is used. These materials resist the corrosive agents present in inks.

The Nib


The user can ‘feel’ the pen on the paper, through the nib. When used, the pen produces an elegant line with an almost calligraphic appearance. Lines of varying thickness can be created due to changes in the writer's hand pressure, angle of the pen to the paper and rotations on the axis of the nib. This is opposed to ballpoint pens and roller balls, as the point of contact with paper is symmetrical, due to the spherical shape of the ball in the point. Thus, a line of unvarying width, regardless of changes in angle, can be achieved.


The use of precious metal for the nib of a fountain pen improves the pen’s performance and increases its life span. Metals corrode when contact with ink takes place, thus, gold is the preferred choice of material, as it resistant to corrosion. The amount of gold in the nib’s construction determines the flexibility or scale of softness, which the nib can offer. The malleability of gold perfectly suits the function of providing the nib with flexibility. However, in its pure form, gold is not resilient. For this reason, gold alloys of 14 carat and 18 carat are the preferred choice of material.


The least expensive fountain pens tend to have stainless steel or gold plated stainless steel nibs. The absence of precious metals, allows the pen to retail at an easily affordable price. In addition, for users converting from ballpoint pens to fountain pens, the gold plated stainless steel nib may be ideal. This is because it requires the same amount of pressure to write with a stainless steel nib as a ballpoint pen. However, stainless steel nibs are extremely inflexible when used, and do not allow the writer the ability to write so freely.


The very tip of the nib, the point, cannot be made of gold because it would wear down very quickly, possibly in a matter of weeks. Pen manufacturers solder a ball of iridium or rhodium, which are both very hardwearing materials, to the end point of the nib. Known as pellets, the pen may last for many years. For this reason, some manufactures guarantee that the point of the nib will last a lifetime. In addition, iridium or rhodium provides the point, which ‘feels’ very smooth when placed onto paper.


It takes about four months for the nib to wear slightly, relative to the way the writer holds the pen to the paper. Thus, a customised point, which is unique to the individual owner, is produced. For this reason, pen manufacturers advise that the fountain pen is not leant to other people.


When selecting a fountain pen, the buyer must consider the weight of the pen. Pens manufactured in brass, sterling silver, and precious metals are heavier in weight than pens manufactured in moulded resins, celluloid and acrylic. The weight distribution or balance of the pen may only be decided when the user practices by holding and writing with the pen. During the manufacturing process, the pen is tested to ensure that when the cap is placed on the tail of the pen, the pen remains balanced.

Early Fountain Pens


Pens manufactured in metal were known in Classical times, but were rarely used. For example, a bronze pen was found in the ruins of Pompeii. The 16th century Spanish calligrapher, Juan de Yciar in his 1548 Writing Manual, mentioned usning brass pens. At this time, wealthy individuals owned pens with gold or silver nibs, often receiving them as gifts. Pens were individuually hand crafted by skilled craftsmen. However, it is uncertain whether these pens could be used for wiritng purposes. The nibs were curled at the upper end, in an attempt to supply the nib with more ink, which did increase the length of time before the pen had to be re-dipped. Writing instruments designed to carry their own supply of ink had existed in principle since the 18th century. For example, the oldest known fountain pen that has survived was designed by a Frenchmen named M. Bion. It is dated from 1702 and contained a nib.


With the introduction of better inks and paper, handwriting developed into an art form. Articles written by hand resembled printed letters, until scholars changed the form of writing by using upper and lower cases, writing at a slant and connecting letters. Gradually, handwriting became more suitable to the speed with which new writing instruments permitted. As writing became an everyday occurrence, the need arose to increase the speed with which pens could write.


Early inventors centred their attention on the natural ink reserve found in the hollow channel of a bird's feather and tried to produce a similar effect. An English engineer, Bryan Donkin, patented a steel pen point in 1803 but did not commercially exploit his patent. Peregrin Williamson, a Baltimore shoemaker, received the first American patent for a pen in 1809. John Scheffer received a British patent in 1819 for his half quill, half metal pen, which he attempted to mass produce.


John Mitchell, an engineer from Birmingham is credited with having introduced the machine-made steel pen point in 1828. Steel was durable and could provide the pen with a hard metal point. In the process, a tempered steel sheet was stamped to produce the basic nib. This was then shaped, slit and the tip formed. The nib was slipped into one end of a metal casing.This technique continues to be used today. The pen was cheap to manufacture and due to the steel nib, had a long life-span.The disadvantage to the design was the bulky shape of the casing. In addition, to write, the nib needed to be constantly dipped into ink, to replenish its supply. It is interesting to note that in America, these early fountain pens were called ‘dip pens’. As the ink needed to be contained in an inkwell or bottle, it was prone to spillages and breakages.


In 1830, the English inventor, James Perry sought to produce a more flexible steel point to the writing point. He cut a centre hole at the top of a central slit and then made additional slits on either side of the nib. However, it was discovered that inks used in fountain pens caused steel nibs to quickly corrode.


With the Industrial Revolution, it became important for writers to use pens when they were not sitting at desks or tables. Writers had to carry a vest chain, with a small metal container holding a vial of ink in one pocket, and a collapsible penholder in the other. This type of early fountain pen was known as the ‘pocket pen’. In addition, the earliest 19th century fountain pens needed an eyedropper to fill the ink reservoir. As the pen developed, the feather was replaced with a long, thin ink reservoir made of hard, rubber. It was used to carry the ink supply to the barrel.


John Jacob Parker patented the first self-filling fountain pen in 1831. However, early developments did not result in the production of a smooth writing pen and often the pen would leak and spill ink, as there was no proper method to regulate the flow of ink to the nib of the pen. Reservoir pens tended to produce puddles of ink onto the paper. The designs were so faulty that they were impractical to use and thus, were hard to sell.

The Development of the Reservoir


The different ways in which reservoirs were filled proved to be one of the most competitive areas in the pen industry. Several different patents were issued as each designer sought different ways in which to fill the reservoir:

  • 1903, THE SELF-FILLING PISTON


    The self-filling piston replaced the re-loading eyedropper.

  • 1905, THE BUTTON FILLER

    Developed in 1913 by the Parker Pen Company, this provided an alternative method to the eyedropper. An external button connected to the internal pressure plate that flattened the ink sack when pressed.

  • AUGUST 1908, THE LEVER FILLER


    In 1912, the W.A. Schaeffer Pen Company of Iowa fitted an external lever, which depressed the flexible rubber ink sack. To refill the pens, the reservoirs were squeezed flat by an internal metal plate. The pen's nib was inserted into a bottle of ink and the pressure on the internal plate was released so that an ink sack would fill up drawing in a fresh supply of ink. Before this development, soft rubber sacks were not needed to be used in fountain pens. The lever fitted flush with the barrel of the pen when it was not in use. Thus, with one stroke, a pen could be filled.


    This method removed the need to fill an eyedropper full of ink, which was a difficult task to perform. By 1915, most pen manufacturers adopted this technique. For the next forty years, the lever filler offered the ultimate design of reservoir. Although other pen manufacturers attempted to copy and refine the lever filler, no system could be developed that offered the same performance standards as the Lever Filler.

  • THE CLICK FILLER


    Initially called the crescent filler, Roy Conklin of Toledo commercially produced the first model. A later design by the Parker Pen Co. used the name ‘Click filler’. When two protruding tabs on the outside of the pen were pressed together, the ink sack deflated. The tabs would make a clicking sound when the sack was full.

  • THE MATCHSTICK FILLER


    This was introduced in about 1910 by the Weidlich Company. The design used a small rod, or a matchstick, which was mounted on the pen. The rod depressed the internal pressure plate through a hole in the side of the barrel.

  • 1913, THE COIN FILLER

    This was developed by the Waterman Pen Company, as competition to the lever filler. A slot in the barrel of the pen enabled a coin to deflate the internal pressure plate, a similar idea to the matchstick filler.

The Development of the Fountain Pen


The period 1880 to 1900 saw many fountain pen inventions. Most of these were not practical, but over 400 Patents were granted. The first practical and workable version of the fountain pen was designed by an American salesman, Lewis E Waterman. To sign a valuable contract Waterman decided not to use his dip pen and purchased an expensive fountain pen. However, initially the pen refused to write and then leaked ink over the print, rendering the contract useless. Whilst waiting for a further sales contract to be drawn up, Waterman’s client changed his mind.


It was this personal grievance that inspired Waterman to develop the fountain pen. He recognised the advantages that a pen that had an in-built supply of ink offered and concentrated on eliminating the ink spills. In 1883, he was granted a patent for including a process for machining decorative designs onto the hard rubber pen barrels.


Through further testing, Waterman developed the fountain pen with the invention of the capillary feed. His original feed was an adaption of a wagon wheel spoke. To prevent ink leakage, Waterman created three grooves inside the feed mechanism. He added an air hole in the nib. The body of the pen was manufactured in hard, vulcanised rubber, which was black in colour. Decorating the pen with wooden accents, he called it the ‘Waterman Ideal Fountain Pen’. The pen produced a steady and even flow of ink onto the paper. In 1884, Waterman patented the first practical fountain pen.


The difficulty, Waterman realized, was pressure. As the ink flowed onto the paper, the volume of ink held in the reservoir chamber diminished, creating a vacuum. It was inevitable, that as the angle of the pen was re-positioned, air rushed into the chamber. A large quantity of ink would leak out. To offset this, Waterman invented and patented three very thin grooves in the channel leading to the reservoir. Capillary action brought ink to the nib, whilst the grooves allowed air to enter the reservoir as needed. The new system worked well. For the first time it became practical to carry a pen in a shirt pocket, which was slim in size, wrote reliably and gracefully and could be purchased at an affordable price. The three-fissure feed became the standard principle for pen manufacturers. It is still in use today.


In his first year of operation, Waterman sold his hand-made pens from a cigar shop in New York. Local labour provided the parts, but Waterman personally assembled the pens on a table and sold them with a written guarantee that the pen would write for five years. In 1884, the second year of operation, he produced about 500 pens.


William Purvis of Philadelphia, USA invented and patented improvements to the fountain pen in 1890. Purvis made several improvements to make a ‘more durable, inexpensive, and better pen to carry in the pocket.’ Purvis used an elastic tube between the pen nib and the ink reservoir that used a suction action to return any excess ink to the ink reservoir. This development reduced ink spills and increased the lifespan of the ink.


In 1894, Parker patented the ‘Lucky Curve’ method of ink feed for his pens. The feed was designed to drain the ink back into the reservoir by capillary attraction when the pen was upright in the pocket of the owner. This invention assisted Parker in becoming a leading pen manufacturer. He called his first pen the ‘Parker Lucky Curve Pen’. It was the Company's principal product up to the 1920’s.


In developing his business, Waterman understood the importance of marketing. Due to heavily investing in magazine advertisements, Waterman became internationally recognized as a leader in the young industry. He displayed his ‘New, Improved’ and ‘Dip No More’ messages on trade cards and in magazines. He secured and published endorsements from leading figures of the time, including Oliver Wendell Holmes. He printed catalogues and sent follow-up letters to buyers asking about their level of satisfaction.


His business grew steadily. By 1899, Waterman had opened a factory in Montreal and was offering a variety of models and sizes. Waterman’s success is partly due to the fact that he realised people not only needed pens that worked efficiently, in addition, the pen had to be designed in an aesthetically pleasing, elegant style. Previous types of pens that had existed for thousands of years not only achieved a high degree of decorative sophistication, they could produce a stylish script. Waterman retained both attributes. He continued to refine the gold nib. In 1899, he introduced the cone cap, which slid over the end of the fountain pen.


Waterman produced intricate metal overlays on the originally plain hard rubber barrels, and later added gold bands to the barrel. In 1898, Waterman introduced colour to the barrel. Some designs were manufactured in red hard rubber, whilst others were produced in mottled red hard rubber. Waterman also experimented with barrel shapes, introducing the hexagonal holder. Eventually, his company began producing jewellery-class models with gold and silver overlays, some studded with gems. Waterman’s innovative designs were extensively copied.


At this time, the fashion of calligraphy re-emerged, the pen a man used reflected his personality even more than it does today. An elegant and reliable pen was as essential to his image as the suits he wore. As a result, there was every kind of fountain pen imaginable on the market.


In 1901, at the time of his death, Waterman was selling 1,000 pens every day. His nephew, Frank D. Waterman took over the Overseas Department of the business. The Treaty of Versailles was signed using a solid gold Waterman pen. By the 1920’s, the company had subsidiaries in Canada, France and the UK.


By the 1920's the Sheaffer Pen Company, introduced a further innovation, with the body of the pen manufactured in plastic. In 1926, Parker introduced an un-breakable plastic pen in the Duofold range of pens. It was tested by dropping the pens from planes and over the rim of the Grand Canyon. The pens withstood these vigorous testing conditions, and used the testing procedures in advertising campaigns.


In the 1930’s, the plastic barrel pens led to the decline in sales of the hard-rubber models, which were very fragile. Currently, there is a variety of plastic fountain pens available. Italian pen manufacturers prefer celluloid, and use it in their more expensive pens. Celluloid has high resistance to impact, and can be cured so that it is aesthetically pleasing. Recently purchased celluloid pens smell of camphor, which is due to camphor being used to cure the nitrocellulose. Acetate, acrylic and resins of both synthetic and vegetable origin can be manufactured to produce aesthetically pleasing, yet durable pens.


By 1924, Sheaffer pens were of such a high level of quality that the company introduced the famous 'White Dot' symbol as a manifestation of their constant striving for perfection.


Walter Sheaffer established a Council of Employees, which worked with the management team to address any problems relating to the workplace. It created a forum for employees to air any grievances without the risk of being dismissed. This worked well, as changes were made in direct response to worker's suggestions.


Slow to respond to the technical and stylistic innovations set by competitors, Waterman finally introduced the ‘Patrician’ plastic pen to its range in 1929. With the American Depression of the 1930’s, sales of Waterman pens declined. However, in 1959, it was the introduction of the ballpoint pen, which caused the company to sell its American production to the BiC Corporation. Currently, production continues in France.


In 1933, Parker produced the ‘Parker Vacuumatic’. The pen contained a sickles filling mechanism. It featured, for the first time, the Parker Arrow Clip and the barrel was manufactured in a laminated pearl finish. The ink capacity of the Vacuumatic was 102% greater than the Duofold Pen of comparable size.


In 1941, Parker introduced the famous Parker ‘51’, which was rated one of the world's best-designed consumer products. The pen was slim-line in shape, with a Lucite barrel, resistant to the corrosive effects of alkali in inks. Parker invested $250,000 in its development, and it became one of the Company's all-time best sellers, influencing the design of all modern writing instruments.


At the end of WWII, Craig Schaeffer took control of the company and increased the size of their U.S. operations. The company had made considerable profit during the war and they gained notability for their work for the US Government. New products were added to the range, including the ‘Snorkel’ fountain pen, which was an immediate success. The company continued its rapid growth.


The Boston Pen Company, newly merged with the Wahl Organisation, patented the roller attached to the ends of the clips of the pen. This eliminated the rubbing effect that pen clips produced when clipped to shirt pockets. Sheaffer continued to develop the pen. The Company patented the Touchdown filling mechanism in 1949 and the Inlaid Nib in 1959.


In the mid-1950s, as air travel became increasingly routine, pen makers sought ways to prevent pens from leaking at high altitude (and correspondingly low cabin pressure). Wahl patented a Safety Ink Shut-Off mechanism. This design of pen used the fit of the cap to push a tab that cut off ink flow to the feed. However, the pen did not work well.


The Wahl Company patented the 9-way adjustable point feature. This varied the flexibility in the point, producing variations between fine and bold, shaded writing. Although this was a technically successful design, the pen did not sell in sufficient numbers, and was eventually withdrawn from the market after a few years.


During the 1950’s, lacquer coated brass became a popular material used to manufacture pen bodies. The metal gave the pen a sharp, aesthetically fashionable appearance. At the time, brass was considered a relatively inexpensive metal to manufacture. Thus, these pens could be sold at affordable prices.


As pens could be manufactured in both metal and plastic, a wide variety of bright colours of pen bodies became available. Today, most major pen manufactures have developed an exclusive range of pens, which include sterling silver, vermeil (gold plated sterling silver), gold and platinum. However, as these materials are rare, the pens are extremely expensive to purchase.


In 1956, after years of intensive research, Parker introduced the Parker ‘61’, the first self-filling fountain pen on the market. It was designed to use capillary action to self-draw enough ink from a bottle to allow six hours of steady writing without a refill.


In 1963, to mark the Company's 75th anniversary, Parker introduced a high-line, solid-sterling silver fountain pen, which uses a 14K gold nib. Called the Parker ‘75’, it is designed for the luxury market. Currently, the pen is still produced to the same manufacturing standards, with 792 inspections during manufacture. It is recognized around the world as an outstanding example of precision manufacture.


From the period 1976 to 1979, Parker produced the Parker ‘180’, a dual-line nib fountain pen and the Parker ‘25’ fountain pen, which uses a unitary-nib.


In the mid-1980’s Shaeffer Pen’s was bought by the Swiss investment-banking company Geinor. The product range was expanded to include 'Lady Sheaffer', the ‘No Nonsense’ line, which copied the firm's 1915-1918 models.


Currently the most expensive fountain pen retails for £24,995 including VAT


Today, two fountain pen manufactures dominate the market, Parker and Schaeffer. They offer a variety of metal nibs available in many widths. These include:

  1. STANDARD NIBS

    These are crafted with symmetrical points, to create a consistent line with subtle variations in line thickness. This nib is best suited for standard correspondence and every day use. The standard nib is the most popular size of nib used today.

  2. OBLIQUE NIBS

    During manufacture, these nibs are cut on an angle. This produces a line with thinner up strokes than down strokes. Oblique nibs use pellets of iridium or rhodium. Reverse oblique nibs are available and provide a preferred point for left-handed writers.

  3. ITALIC NIBS

    These nibs are pelted straight cut nibs, needed for precise slow writing when an italic script is preferred. Also available are oblique italic nibs and for the left handed writer, crowd reverse oblique italic nibs, are available.

  4. CALLIGRAPHY NIBS

    This grade of nib has a broad, straight cut nib. To create the font, a pellet is not used. Nibs are often available with a range of widths relative to the size or height of character desired. Direction of the nib's motion on the writing surface has the effect of creating many thicknesses.

  5. OTHER NIBS

    In addition, leading pen manufacturers offer extra fine, broad and script writer sizes of nibs.

Manufacturing the Nib

Today, pen nibs are produced by mass flow production. The process can be broken down into several stages.

  1. The gold ingot is rolled to 10 to 20mm thick, dependant on the thickness required by the manufacturer. The ingot is annealed to ensure the nib is flexible. It is re-rolled to a thickness of 0.3 to 0.6mm. The ingot is cold bench pressed to ensure further flexibility and resilience.
  2. The first die is cut.
  3. The iridium is soldered onto the gold.
  4. The gold/iridium connection is sanded down.
  5. The form is rolled between two grooved cylinders. This thins the body of the nib, which improves flexibility. The point of the nib must measure 0.1mm, to ensure that it fits tightly with the body of pen.
  6. Other minor parts needed for the nib are cut using a bench press.
  7. The eye of the point is drilled out.
  8. The nib is curved, in a process known as ‘impressing curvature’.
  9. Using a cutting disk, the nib is slit to the eye of the nib.
  10. The nib is re-sanded to the grade required. This is classed as f for fine, m for medium, b for broad.
  11. The upper part of the nib is polished to jewellery quality standards. The underside remains dull in appearance, as this assists the regulation of the ink flow.


Although a fountain pen requires a great deal less pressure to write with than ballpoint point, the fountain pen has many disadvantages:

  1. The ink can flow unevenly.
  2. The ink is slow to dry. The ink is exposed to the air while it is flowing through the pen, so it cannot dry quickly or it would clog the pen.
  3. When ink accidentally dries in the pen, the ink clogs in the pen. It needs to be thoroughly cleaned before it performs correctly.

The Ink Cartridge


The potentially messy process of refilling fountain pens with liquid ink from a bottle was resolved in 1927 when the ink cartridge was invented by a Director of Waterman Pens, M. Perrand. He put the ink into a small glass tube with a cork stopper. The concept was patented in 1935.


The ink cartridge was introduced in about 1950. Manufactured in glass or plastic, the pre-filled cartridge was designed for clean and easy insertion. In addition, the used cartridge could be easily disposed. The cartridge was an immediate success.


A development of the ink cartridge was to make it transportable. This was possible as the new cartridges could only be pierced on one end. This allows the traveller to carry an un-pierced cartridge in a fountain pen chamber, without the risk of leakage during transportation. This is advantageous especially during air travel.


On August 12th, 2002, Shaffer launched a new design of ink cartridge. The cartridges remain transparent, but the colour of the end cap is the same as the colour of the ink held inside the cartridge. This makes it much easier to distinguish between the three colours, Jet Black, Blue and Blue-Black. This allows consumers to easily see the level of ink in the cartridge.


Unfortunately, the introduction of the ballpoint pen overshadowed the invention of the ink cartridge and sales of fountain pens decreased. Today, fountain pens are marketed as classic writing instruments. Early examples have become highly collectable items.

1Though there is a large number of people who feel that the fountain pen is just a messy instrument!2Unless you're a complete klutz, or forget to remove a loaded fountain pen from your pocket before embarking on an airline flight. The change in atmospheric pressure will probably cause your pen to leak ink all over your clothes.

Bookmark on your Personal Space


Conversations About This Entry

Title
Latest Post

Entry

A948530

Infinite Improbability Drive

Infinite Improbability Drive

Read a random Edited Entry


Written by

Disclaimer

h2g2 is created by h2g2's users, who are members of the public. The views expressed are theirs and unless specifically stated are not those of the Not Panicking Ltd. Unlike Edited Entries, Entries have not been checked by an Editor. If you consider any Entry to be in breach of the site's House Rules, please register a complaint. For any other comments, please visit the Feedback page.

Write an Entry

"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy is a wholly remarkable book. It has been compiled and recompiled many times and under many different editorships. It contains contributions from countless numbers of travellers and researchers."

Write an entry
Read more