"The persistent effort of so-called modern minds to explain mysteries is, in any case,

one of the most naive and foolish activities indulged in by the puny human brain since it

became overstocked with shallow political and scientific notions, and can yield nothing,

in the long run..."
¹

This scathing criticism of historical analysts appeared in the program of the French

production of The Lark, Jean Anouilh's play about the trial and execution of Joan

of Arc. However, Anouilh was mistaken in this claim: the study of history can be both

rewarding and informative.

For example, if trying to explain mysteries is as futile as Anouilh claims, then the

story of Joan of Arc would long since have been forgotten. On the contrary, the story of

la Pucelle has been very well remembered in the folk mythology of western civilisation.

The story contains all the elements of a good tale, foremost among them the mystery of

Joan's divine inspiration, and her patriotism.

Furthermore, the Maid's story can be quite useful in offering evidence and explanations

of the role of women in European society at the time. The volume of documentation of the

life and trial of Joan of Arc is immense, and the literature written about her is equally

voluminous. This allows historians to piece together a picture of the woman of the Middle

Ages.

Despite his own knowledge of the life of Joan of Arc (he wrote a definitive play),

Anouilh overlooked these two very important aspects of historical interpretation.

Although perhaps nobody has succeeded in unlocking the mystery of Joan of Arc, the study

of her life reveals a lot of important information.

It seems futile to begin any analysis of the life and times of Joan of Arc without first

acknowledging who she was and what she achieved.

Joan of Arc's French name is Jeanne d'Arc, and to her contemporaries she was known as la

Pucelle (the Maid).
²
Born on 6 January, 1412, to a poor farmer at Domremy in Champagne, she was a deeply

religious girl who spent much of her time at church. Aged about thirteen she began to

hear the voices of what she believed to be several saints - St Michael, St Margaret, St

Catherine and others.
³

These voices told Joan that she was to be the saviour of France in the Hundred Years War.

"You must go! You must go!"
⁴
the voices commanded her, prior to her journeys to Vancouleurs to see the dauphin

Charles in May 1428 and January 1429. She passed tests set by Charles to establish her

validity, and was granted leave to mount a campaign against the English.
⁵

Joan fought her way successfully to Reims, where Charles VII was finally crowned King of

France on Sunday, 17 July, 1429. After a further brief military career, la Pucelle was

captured by the Burgundians, who sold her as a prisoner to the English. The English

immediately attempted to have her sentenced for witchcraft and heresy.
⁶

After a long and drawn out trial at the hands, primarily, of Pierre Cauchin, Bishop of

Beauvais, and after being tricked into wearing men's clothing,
⁷
Joan of Arc was burned at the stake on 30 May, 1431. Twenty-four years later, the case

was reopened by the French and Joan was acquitted.
⁸

Joan of Arc's story runs, essentially, along two strands - nationalism and religion. In

winning significant battles for the French army, Joan won the hearts of the French

people, which has assisted greatly in her remembrance. By claiming to be a prophet,
⁹
and the drawn out process leading ultimately to her canonisation in 1920,
¹⁰
she has drawn on the Catholic church to keep the tale alive.

J. M. Roberts, in his History of the World, says of the Hundred Years War:

"In the long run, too, French national mythology benefited; its greatest acquisition was

the story and example of Joan of Arc whose astonishing career accompanied the turning of

the balance of the long struggle against the English, though few Frenchmen at the time

knew she existed."
¹¹

Joan of Arc became, posthumously, a French national heroine, symbolising a never-say-die

attitude and extreme pride in her country and her King. The result has been an increased

historical interest in her story: there have been many women warriors throughout history,
¹²
but Joan of Arc is remembered for her victories against the English.

In fact, this nationalism will cause Joan of Arc to be remembered indefinitely. In

France, the second Sunday in May is a national holiday known as Joan of Arc's Day.
¹³

The religious aspect of the Maid's life is equally influential in the historic memory of

her story. For example, there has been a debate running since she was tested by Charles

VII as to whether the voices urging her on were actually saintly.
¹⁴
Modern analysts, such as Anatole France, have tried to rationalise the voices, while

supernaturalists have tried to claim them as examples of divine inspiration.
¹⁵

The drawn out process of canonisation has also aided the memory of la Pucelle. Although

she was burned at the stake on 30 May, 1431, she was only beatified 478 years later, on

11 April, 1909. Eventually she was canonised by Pipe Benedict XV on 16 May, 1920. In

effect, Joan of Arc's story remained current for over 500 years, from birth to sainthood.
¹⁶

But while French nationalists and Christians have a specific interest in Joan of Arc,

others do not. And yet her story is still read, viewed or told by large groups of the

population. The fact that the tale has many important elements is the key to its

popularity.

Fundamental to any good story is the battle between good and evil. This is certainly

present in Jeanne d'Arc's life, as the Hundred Years War and her trial provide adequate

conflict. The English had been at war with France since 1337, when Edward III claimed the

French Throne.
¹⁷
The portrayal of the English as invaders hence creates an 'evil' impression. Further,

Pierre Cauchin's tactics in finding Joan guilty - he said, at one point, "We shall have

her yet." - certainly cast him in a less than favourable light.
¹⁸

Joan of Arc, on the other hand, is an angelic figure. She was known, even as a child, for

her piety, and the fact that she claimed to be God's messenger must also work in her

favour.
¹⁹
Of the initial list of seventy charges, fifty-eight were dropped.
²⁰
The Maid's virginity was also proved, so the positive characteristics of this have been

associated with her.

Jeanne d'Arc's virginity introduces a second important element of a good story into her

life: sex. At the time, Joan was accused of sexual promiscuity, a charge that was dropped

after investigations proved otherwise. However, in recent times she has been accused of

lesbianism. There is no evidence of this, and in fact there is evidence to the contrary:

"An even more baffling misconception is the notion that she was a lesbian, despite the

fact that this accusation was never even included in the 70 articles against her: if you

read through these charges, you won't find the slightest mention of this issue at all,

nor will you find mention of it anywhere in the testimony (Cauchon [sic] accused her of a

great number of things, but lesbianism was not one of them)."
²¹

The final ingredient that has made Joan of Arc's life so interesting to modern scholars

is mystery. The religious elements aside, Joan's story contains many ambiguities, and the

effort to explain these has maintained a focus on the Maid.
²²

Even though contradictions exist in Joan's story, it can provide a great deal of

historical information. One field of study with which Joan of Arc is frequently

associated is the role of women in the Middle Ages. Our knowledge of the life of the

female population at the time has been greatly expanded by analysis of Joan's life.

However, many misconceptions still exist about the role of the medieval woman. For

example, conversations within the family of the author exposed the belief that women were

confined to the bedroom and the kitchen. This opinion comes from stories about knights in

shining armour rescuing damsels in distress, and the concentration on male behaviour in

film and literature about the time. Another false belief discovered was that women were

not warriors, and that this was one reason that Joan of Arc was executed; for stepping

outside her role in this way.

On the contrary, it was often expected that women would take part in battle. The fact

that Jeanne d'Arc became a mascot for the French army supports this.
²³
Had fighting women been frowned upon at the time, then surely the soldiers would not

have supported and admired la Pucelle, let alone have accepted her orders in battle.

Other examples in history of fighting women are not few. Noble women such as Countess

Jeanne de Penthièvre, Marcia Ordelaffi, Jeanne de Belleville, Lady de Châtillon and

Countess Jeanne de Montfort were all active in various battles during the Middle Ages.
²⁴
As Philippe Verdier points out, "Such females ... fought more fiercely against their

vascals than did the siege lords."
²⁵
This certainly seems strange considering that women were only recently admitted into the

modern military, despite a rich heritage of successful combat.

In addition, the fact that Joan of Arc wore specially built female armour shows not only

the skills of craftsmen at the time, but also the confidence placed in Joan's ability on

the battlefield. Armour was by no means cheap, and Joan's agricultural background means

she could not have paid for it herself.
²⁶
Therefore, someone of considerable means must have purchased it for her - revealing

strong faith in the ability of women warriors.

However skilled on the battlefield women may have been, they remained few in number,

partially because of the cost, but also because they had so-called 'womanly duties' to

attend to. Joan of Arc, even as a child, was proficient at spinning and weaving, as well

as other feminine crafts. This was a fact of which she was certainly proud, and indeed

she told Jean de Metz that "I would rather stay at home with my poor mother and do the

spinning."
²⁷

Such abilities were desirable at the time, because when the economy called for increased

output, women would take jobs:

"... periods of economic expansion when women were encouraged to participate in public

occupations and periods of falling prices when unemployment relegated women to the

domestic sphere."
²⁸

Female duty to the family was not merely economic. Young women were expected to show the

utmost deference to their father. This fact is evident in Joan's early struggle with her

conscience before departing for Domremy for the first time: she could not justify leaving

her family.
²⁹
Indeed, upon her arrival, she was made less than welcome by Charles' representative

Robert Baudricourt, who commanded the cousin who accompanied her, "Take her home to her

father and give her a good whipping."
³⁰

However, such feminine arts as spinning and weaving did not restrict women to a domestic

setting. Often such talents would actually offer the opportunity to participate in

artisans guilds, which were, on occasion, were entirely composed of women.
³¹
However, as the Middle Ages progressed, places for women in such guilds became fewer.

Another interesting aspect of Joan of Arc's life that can shed light on the role of her

contemporary women is her virginity. As pointed out above, the Maid's virginity was

tested and proved. Interestingly, this test must have been common knowledge, as an

illustration appears in the marginalia of an early Franco-Flemish Book of Hours.

It was believed at the time that one could not be both a witch and a virgin; that is,

virginity was associated very closely with purity. This shows that female sexuality was

valued very highly, presumably due to its association with childbirth:

There is a connection ... between female sexuality, magic, and religion.
³²

Joan of Arc took a vow of celibacy at the age of thirteen,
³³
a decision which reveals not only her religious nature, but also her knowledge of sex.

Although it was a taboo subject in the Middle Ages, somebody - presumably her mother -

passed on such information. This illustrates a mother-daughter link common at the time,

as well as a need for such knowledge at a young age.

Rules and customs with regard to marriage are often studied by scholars interested in the

role of women throughout history. Although Joan of Arc never married, circumstances

arising from the vow of celibacy she took reveal some information on the matter.

At the age of sixteen the Maid of Orleans was courted and proposed to by a boy from her

town. Citing her celibacy as a defence, she turned down his offer, but faced the

retribution of her father for doing so.
³⁴
As we have seen, Joan had a tremendous respect for the opinions of her parents, so the

decision not to marry could not have been taken lightly. But what does this reveal about

marriage in the Middle Ages?

Firstly, it shows that the marriage of a girl was a family affair. According to Christine

de Pizan, a female, medieval author, there is a danger in "entering into any new marriage

without the approval and advice of family and friends."
³⁵
Also, the necessity of the bride's family to pay a dowry to her husband meant that the

family were given significant sway in choosing the successful suitor.
³⁶

Secondly, it shows that chastity and religion are among the only reasons a woman could

remain single. Stuard notes that:

"Women who did not marry were considered appropriately situated only when they were

cloistered, an enormous burden on the spiritual nature of the conventual orders and

houses which existed."
³⁷

Although Joan did not join the monastic life, the fact that she carried out a spiritual

mission would suffice.

Contrary to Anouilh's opinion, the attempt by historians to explain mysteries is neither

naive nor foolish. It does not, as he claims, "yield nothing, in the long run". As we

have seen, analysing and interpreting the events of the past can be revealing and

rewarding.

In the case of Joan of Arc, her life offers the chance to catch a glimpse of the role of

women at the time. What she did, or, in the case of marriage, what she did not do, can

reveal the customs and attitudes of medieval society. Women were not, as is often

assumed, restricted to the household sphere. Quite often women joined the military and,

like the Maid, fought bravely. Even their domestic duties were used to gain access to

public life, be it through employment or artisans guilds.

Even if Anouilh is right (though I have my doubts), and we will never succeed in

unraveling the mysteries of history, then perhaps interpretation of Joan of Arc's story

can tell us something about the modern mind. How is it that a woman who died over five

hundred years ago can still interest us?

Whether nationalism, religion or entertainment play equal roles in her memory is a

question that will probably go unanswered, but one thing is known for certain. Joan of

Arc was a remarkable woman whose story will remain etched in the folk mythology of

western civilisation for many years to come.

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