The Benefits of Babywearing
Created | Updated Nov 14, 2013
Babywearing is the act of using a sling, wrap or other carrier to hold your baby close to you for prolonged periods of time. It was coined by the William and Martha Sears, who also invented the term ''.
Being Close
Being physically close to your child comes with its whole range of benefits. Babywearing isn’t the only way to do this, but it’s certainly one of the easiest!
On a practical level, being close allows for a quick response to baby cues that may not be as obvious from a distance. Babies who have attentive parents are much less likely to cry (St James-Roberts et al, 2006) (Crenshaw, 2007). If parents feel as though they are responding well to their baby, they usually have more faith in their own parenting skills and are less stressed!
A wearer also knows where a child is and can feel their temperature and their breathing pattern. This means that a child is safer in a suitable carrier than being left unattended, especially if the parent leaves the room (for example to do household chores).
On a physiological level holding your baby close for extended periods of time also releases several hormones, the key one of which is oxytocin, which promotes bonding in both mother and father (Gordon I, et al 2010), helps with a breastfeeding relationship (Renfrew MJ, et al, 2000), and also can prevent or alleviate post natal depression (Skrundz M et al, 2011).
By having your child close to you it makes it easier to include them in everyday activities, such as talking, pointing out objects and explaining what’s going on around you.
By mimicking the conditions of the womb by carrying close and moving, your child gets the choice of when and how much it looks at the world. In the early days they’ll be comforted by the gentle rocking as you walk (Byrne J and Horowitz F, 1981). As they get older they can choose to turn their heads away from you and look out at the world from a safe, secure vantage point, and turn back when they’ve had enough. Being given that choice is important, even in the early few weeks, as overstimulation in children can have long-term negative effects (Christakis et al, 2012).
Finally, a baby who has a secure attachment to their caregivers usually leads to a happier child (Cook, 2010) and close proximity encourages that bonding between wearer and baby (Anisfeld et al, 1990). Babywearing is an easy way of facilitating this closeness and attachment.
Physical Benefits
Being held in an upright position can help with the symptoms of reflux (Jung et al, 2012), and being held close can sometimes help a child feel comforted when suffering from colic, although there is no evidence that carrying makes the symptoms themselves less severe (Dewar, 2009).
Being carried rather than being stationary gives your baby the opportunity to practice balance and head control (unless it chooses to snuggle in and rest). Carried babies often develop these skills earlier than non-carried babies (Blois, 2005).
Flat head syndrome (plagiocephaly) is caused by a baby spending a lot of time in its back. Using a sling isn’t the only way of getting a baby off of its back during the day, but it is one of the easiest.
It’s also one of the easiest ways to carry your baby in the optimal position for healthy spine and hip development (Dodge, 2012).
Practical benefits
Finally, the practical benefits. Babywearing:
· can let you be hands free while looking after your baby
· can help reduce sibling rivalry as hands are free to touch and reassure the older child
· can let you navigate over rough terrain, escalators, stairs etc.
· can give you a chance to show some personality and colour whilst you’re wearing the same three shirts week after week
· can give a great sense of freedom to those who find it difficult to use a pushchair (e.g. in rural locations or flats, disabled people)
· makes it easier to maintain correct posture compared to pushing a pushchair or carrying on the hip in arms
· is cheaper than a pushchair
· costs less energy, is less wasteful and produces a smaller carbon footprint than a pushchair. In addition, if you don’t need to fit in a pushchair you could get away with a smaller car
· could make highstreets, cafes, public transport much more spacious places to be without pushchairs
· is good exercise
· allows you to recoup a lot more when selling a second-hand sling versus a second hand pushchair
· lets you chase after your toddler without having to drag around an empty pushchair at the same time
References
St James-Roberts I, Alvarez M, Csipke E, et al. Infant crying and sleeping in London, Copenhagen and when parents adopt a “proximal” form of care. Pediatrics 2006;117(6):e1146-e1155. http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/117/6/e1146.full
Care Practice #6: No Separation of Mother and Baby, With Unlimited Opportunities for Breastfeeding. J Perinat Educ. 2007 Summer; 16(3): 39–43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1948089/
Renfrew MJ, Lang S, Woolridge M., 2000. Oxytocin for promoting successful lactation. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10796158
Gordon I, Zagoory-Sharon O, Leckman J F, Feldman R, 2010. Oxytocin and the Development of Parenting in Humans http://www.biologicalpsychiatryjournal.com/article/S0006-3223%2810%2900120-4/abstract
Skrundz M, Bolten M, Nast I, Hellhammer D H, and Meinlschmidt G, May 2011 Plasma Oxytocin Concentration during Pregnancy is associated with Development of Postpartum Depression http://www.nature.com/npp/journal/v36/n9/full/npp201174a.html
D. A. Christakis, J. S. B. Ramirez & J. M. Ramirez, July 2012 Overstimulation of newborn mice leads to behavioral differences and deficits in cognitive performance http://www.nature.com/srep/2012/120731/srep00546/full/srep00546.html
Cook J L, Cook G, July 2010, Early Attachment and Long-Term Outcomes http://www.education.com/reference/article/early-attachment-long-term-outcomes/
Jung, Yang, Min, Jeon, Lee, Lee, and Pyun, 2012. The Efficacy of the Upright Position on Gastro-Esophageal Reflux and Reflux-Related Respiratory Symptoms in Infants With Chronic Respiratory Symptoms
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3242055/
Dewar, G (2009) Infant crying, fussing, and colic: An anthropological perspective on the role of parenting http://www.parentingscience.com/infant-crying.html
Blois, M (2005) Babywearing. Pharmasoft Publishing
Dodge, A (2012) Biomechanics of Babywearing: Part 1 – Baby Positioning http://onyababy.com/blog/2012/09/babywearing-baby-positioning/
Anisfeld E, Casper V, Nozyce M, and Cunningham N. 1990. Does infant carrying promote attachment? An experimental study of the effects of increased physical contact on the development of attachment. Child Dev. 61(5):1617-27. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2245751
Byrne J and Horowitz F. 1981. Rocking as a Soothing Intervention: The Influence of Direction and Type of Movement. Infant Behavior and Development 4: 207-218. http://jei.sagepub.com/content/12/4/306.abstract
Some further reading
For researching above I came across all manner of studies that touched on babywearing, child attachment, baby crying, and a host of other related fields.
Barr RG, Konner M, Bakeman R and Adamson L. 1991. Crying in !Kung San infants: A test of the cultural specificity hypothesis. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 33: 601-610.
Bell SM and Ainsworth MDS. 1972. Infant crying and maternal responsiveness. Child Development 43: 1171-1190.
Byrne J and Horowitz F. 1981. Rocking as a Soothing Intervention: The Influence of Direction and Type of Movement. Infant Behavior and Development 4: 207-218.
Christensson K, Cabrera T, Christensson E, Uvnas-Moberg K and Winberg J. 1995. Separation distress call in the human neonate in the absence of maternal body contact. Acta Paediatrica 84: 468-473.
Esposito G, Yoshiaa S, Ohnishi R, Tsuneoka Y, del Carmen Rostagno M, et al. 2013. Current Biology epub ahead of print 10.1016/j.cub.2013.03.041.
Fouts HN, Lamb ME, and Hewlett BS. 2004. Infant crying in hunter-gatherer cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 27(4): 462-463.
Gray L, Watt L, Blass EM. 2000. Skin-to-skin contact is analgesic in healthy newborns. Pediatrics 105(1).
Hunziker UA and Barr RG. 1986. Increased carrying reduces infant crying: a randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics. 77(5):641-8.
Jenni OG. 2004. Sleep-wake processes play a key role in early infant crying. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 27(4): 464-465.
Konner M. 2005. Hunter-gatherer infancy and childhood: The !Kung and others. In: Hunter-gatherer childhoods: Evolutionary, developmental and cultural perpectives. BS Hewlett and ME Lamb (eds). New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
Mennella J. 2007. Breastfeeding and smoking: Short-term effects on infant feeding and sleep. Pediatrics 120 (3):497-502.
Reijneveld SA, Lanting CI, Crone MR, and Van Wouwe JP. 2005. Exposure to tobacco smoke and infant crying. Acta Paediatr. 94(2):217-21.
St James-Roberts I, Alvarez M, Csipke E, Abramsky T, Goodwin J, and Sorgenfrei E. 2006. Infant crying and sleeping in London, Copenhagen and when parents adopt a "proximal" form of care. Pediatrics. 117(6):e1146-55.
St James-Roberts I, Hurry J, Bowyer J, and Barr RG. 1995. Supplementary carrying compared with advice to increase responsive parenting as interventions to prevent persistent infant crying. Pediatrics. 95(3):381-8.
Shah PS, Aliwalas L, and Shah V. 2007. Breastfeeding or breast milk to alleviate procedural pain in neonates: a systematic review. Breastfeeding medicine 2:74-82.
Shenassa E and Brown M-J. 2004. Maternal smoking and infantile gastrointestinal dysregulation: The case of colic. Pediatrics 114(4): 497-505.
Spencer JA, Moran DJ, Lee A, and Talbert D. 1990. White noise and sleep induction.Arch Dis Child. 65(1):135-7.
Tishkoff SA and Verrelli BC. 2003. Patterns of human genetic diversity: Implications for Human Evolutionary History and Disease. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4: 293-340.
van Sleuwen BE, L'hoir MP, Engelberts AC, Busschers WB, Westers P, Blom MA, Schulpen TW, and Kuis W. 2007 Comparison of behavior modification with and without swaddling as interventions for excessive crying. J Pediatr. 149(4):512-7.
Verdu P, Austerlitz F, Estoup A, et al. 2009. Origins and Genetic Diversity of Pygmy Hunter-Gatherers from Western Central Africa Current Biology, 19 (4), 312-318
Weissbluth L and Weissbluth M. 1992. Infant colic: the effect of serotonin and melatonin circadian rhythms on the intestinal smooth muscle. Med Hypotheses. 39(2):164-7.
White-Traut RC, Schwertz D, McFarlin B, and Kogan J. 2009. Salivary cortisol and behavioral state responses of healthy newborn infants to tactile-only and multisensory interventions. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 38(1):22-34.
Yazdani M, Ide K, Asadifar M, Gottschalk S, Joseph F Jr, and Nakamoto T. 2004. Effects of caffeine on the saturated and monounsaturated Fatty acids of the newborn rat cerebellum. Ann Nutr Metab. 48(2):79-83.
Zink M, Araç G, Frank ST, Gass P, Gebicke-Härter PJ, and Spanagel R. 2009. Perinatal exposure to alcohol reduces the expression of complexins I and II. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 31(6):400-5.
Archer, J. (1992). Ethology and Human Development. Rowman.
Blois, M. (2005). Babywearing. Pharmasoft Publishing.
Bonnet, E.. (1998 ). In Points made during discussions regarding the carrying of Infants and small children, Published in Krankengymnastik 50 Jg (1998) No.8
Crisholm, J, & . (1983). Navajo Infancy: An Ethological Study of Child Development. Aldine Transaction.
Field, T.(2003). Touch. First MIT Press.
Heller, S. (1997). The Vital Touch: How Intimate Contact With Your Baby Leads To Happier, Healthier Development. Holt Paperbacks.
International Chiropractic Pediatric Association. Baby Wearing: Suggestions for Carrying your Baby. http://www.icpa4kids.org/research/children/babywearing.html
Kirkilionis, E. (2002). Carrying an Infant: More than the Possibility of Child Transport. Kosel.
Le Veau, B.. (1984, Dec). Developmental Biomechanics: Effect of Forces on the Growth, Development, and Maintenance of the Human. Physical Therapy. www.physicaltherapyjournal.com/cgi/content/abstract/64/12/1874
Montagu, A. (1986). Touching: The Human Significance of the Skin. Harper Paperbacks.
Morningstar. (2005). Reflex Control of the Spine and Posture: A Review of the Literature from a Chiropractic Perspective.
Chiropractic & Osteopathy. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16091134
Newman, P. H. THE ETIOLOGY OF SPONDYLOLISTHESIS. Journal of Bone Joint Surgery. 45(1963), 35-59.www.jbjs.org.uk/cgi/content/abstract/45-B/1/39
ROWE, Y. (1987). ESSENTIAL SKELETAL RADIOLOGY. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.
Schon, R. (2007). Natural Parenting-Back to Basics in Infant Care. 5(1), 102-183. from Evolutionary Psychology from http://www.epjournal.net/filestore/ep05102183.pdf
Short, M. (1996). The Effects of Swaddling versus Standard Positioning in Very Low Birth Weight Infants. Neonatal Network. 15(4).from http://www.cebp.nl/vault_public/filesystem/?ID=2156
Van Slewen et al,. (2007, Oct). Swaddling: A Systematic Review. Pediatrics. 120(4), 1097-1106.from http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/120/4/e1097
Wong, L. C. (2004, Jun). Rehabilitation of a patient with a rare multi-level isthmic spondylolisthesis: a case report. 142-151. The Journal of the Canadian Chiropractic Organization from www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1840041
Zeedyk, S.. (2008). What’s Life in a Baby Buggy Like? The Impact of Buggy Orientation on Parent-Infant Interaction and Infant Stress. University of Dundee/National Literary Trust, Nov. 21, 2008). from www.literacytrust.org.uk/talktoyourbaby/Buggy_research.pdf
Being Close
Being physically close to your child comes with its whole range of benefits. Babywearing isn’t the only way to do this, but it’s certainly one of the easiest!
On a practical level, being close allows for a quick response to baby cues that may not be as obvious from a distance. Babies who have attentive parents are much less likely to cry (St James-Roberts et al, 2006) (Crenshaw, 2007). If parents feel as though they are responding well to their baby, they usually have more faith in their own parenting skills and are less stressed!
A wearer also knows where a child is and can feel their temperature and their breathing pattern. This means that a child is safer in a suitable carrier than being left unattended, especially if the parent leaves the room (for example to do household chores).
On a physiological level holding your baby close for extended periods of time also releases several hormones, the key one of which is oxytocin, which promotes bonding in both mother and father (Gordon I, et al 2010), helps with a breastfeeding relationship (Renfrew MJ, et al, 2000), and also can prevent or alleviate post natal depression (Skrundz M et al, 2011).
By having your child close to you it makes it easier to include them in everyday activities, such as talking, pointing out objects and explaining what’s going on around you.
By mimicking the conditions of the womb by carrying close and moving, your child gets the choice of when and how much it looks at the world. In the early days they’ll be comforted by the gentle rocking as you walk (Byrne J and Horowitz F, 1981). As they get older they can choose to turn their heads away from you and look out at the world from a safe, secure vantage point, and turn back when they’ve had enough. Being given that choice is important, even in the early few weeks, as overstimulation in children can have long-term negative effects (Christakis et al, 2012).
Finally, a baby who has a secure attachment to their caregivers usually leads to a happier child (Cook, 2010) and close proximity encourages that bonding between wearer and baby (Anisfeld et al, 1990). Babywearing is an easy way of facilitating this closeness and attachment.
Physical Benefits
Being held in an upright position can help with the symptoms of reflux (Jung et al, 2012), and being held close can sometimes help a child feel comforted when suffering from colic, although there is no evidence that carrying makes the symptoms themselves less severe (Dewar, 2009).
Being carried rather than being stationary gives your baby the opportunity to practice balance and head control (unless it chooses to snuggle in and rest). Carried babies often develop these skills earlier than non-carried babies (Blois, 2005).
Flat head syndrome (plagiocephaly) is caused by a baby spending a lot of time in its back. Using a sling isn’t the only way of getting a baby off of its back during the day, but it is one of the easiest.
It’s also one of the easiest ways to carry your baby in the optimal position for healthy spine and hip development (Dodge, 2012).
Practical benefits
Finally, the practical benefits. Babywearing:
· can let you be hands free while looking after your baby
· can help reduce sibling rivalry as hands are free to touch and reassure the older child
· can let you navigate over rough terrain, escalators, stairs etc.
· can give you a chance to show some personality and colour whilst you’re wearing the same three shirts week after week
· can give a great sense of freedom to those who find it difficult to use a pushchair (e.g. in rural locations or flats, disabled people)
· makes it easier to maintain correct posture compared to pushing a pushchair or carrying on the hip in arms
· is cheaper than a pushchair
· costs less energy, is less wasteful and produces a smaller carbon footprint than a pushchair. In addition, if you don’t need to fit in a pushchair you could get away with a smaller car
· could make highstreets, cafes, public transport much more spacious places to be without pushchairs
· is good exercise
· allows you to recoup a lot more when selling a second-hand sling versus a second hand pushchair
· lets you chase after your toddler without having to drag around an empty pushchair at the same time
References
St James-Roberts I, Alvarez M, Csipke E, et al. Infant crying and sleeping in London, Copenhagen and when parents adopt a “proximal” form of care. Pediatrics 2006;117(6):e1146-e1155. http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/117/6/e1146.full
Care Practice #6: No Separation of Mother and Baby, With Unlimited Opportunities for Breastfeeding. J Perinat Educ. 2007 Summer; 16(3): 39–43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1948089/
Renfrew MJ, Lang S, Woolridge M., 2000. Oxytocin for promoting successful lactation. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10796158
Gordon I, Zagoory-Sharon O, Leckman J F, Feldman R, 2010. Oxytocin and the Development of Parenting in Humans http://www.biologicalpsychiatryjournal.com/article/S0006-3223%2810%2900120-4/abstract
Skrundz M, Bolten M, Nast I, Hellhammer D H, and Meinlschmidt G, May 2011 Plasma Oxytocin Concentration during Pregnancy is associated with Development of Postpartum Depression http://www.nature.com/npp/journal/v36/n9/full/npp201174a.html
D. A. Christakis, J. S. B. Ramirez & J. M. Ramirez, July 2012 Overstimulation of newborn mice leads to behavioral differences and deficits in cognitive performance http://www.nature.com/srep/2012/120731/srep00546/full/srep00546.html
Cook J L, Cook G, July 2010, Early Attachment and Long-Term Outcomes http://www.education.com/reference/article/early-attachment-long-term-outcomes/
Jung, Yang, Min, Jeon, Lee, Lee, and Pyun, 2012. The Efficacy of the Upright Position on Gastro-Esophageal Reflux and Reflux-Related Respiratory Symptoms in Infants With Chronic Respiratory Symptoms
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3242055/
Dewar, G (2009) Infant crying, fussing, and colic: An anthropological perspective on the role of parenting http://www.parentingscience.com/infant-crying.html
Blois, M (2005) Babywearing. Pharmasoft Publishing
Dodge, A (2012) Biomechanics of Babywearing: Part 1 – Baby Positioning http://onyababy.com/blog/2012/09/babywearing-baby-positioning/
Anisfeld E, Casper V, Nozyce M, and Cunningham N. 1990. Does infant carrying promote attachment? An experimental study of the effects of increased physical contact on the development of attachment. Child Dev. 61(5):1617-27. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2245751
Byrne J and Horowitz F. 1981. Rocking as a Soothing Intervention: The Influence of Direction and Type of Movement. Infant Behavior and Development 4: 207-218. http://jei.sagepub.com/content/12/4/306.abstract
Some further reading
For researching above I came across all manner of studies that touched on babywearing, child attachment, baby crying, and a host of other related fields.
Barr RG, Konner M, Bakeman R and Adamson L. 1991. Crying in !Kung San infants: A test of the cultural specificity hypothesis. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 33: 601-610.
Bell SM and Ainsworth MDS. 1972. Infant crying and maternal responsiveness. Child Development 43: 1171-1190.
Byrne J and Horowitz F. 1981. Rocking as a Soothing Intervention: The Influence of Direction and Type of Movement. Infant Behavior and Development 4: 207-218.
Christensson K, Cabrera T, Christensson E, Uvnas-Moberg K and Winberg J. 1995. Separation distress call in the human neonate in the absence of maternal body contact. Acta Paediatrica 84: 468-473.
Esposito G, Yoshiaa S, Ohnishi R, Tsuneoka Y, del Carmen Rostagno M, et al. 2013. Current Biology epub ahead of print 10.1016/j.cub.2013.03.041.
Fouts HN, Lamb ME, and Hewlett BS. 2004. Infant crying in hunter-gatherer cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 27(4): 462-463.
Gray L, Watt L, Blass EM. 2000. Skin-to-skin contact is analgesic in healthy newborns. Pediatrics 105(1).
Hunziker UA and Barr RG. 1986. Increased carrying reduces infant crying: a randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics. 77(5):641-8.
Jenni OG. 2004. Sleep-wake processes play a key role in early infant crying. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 27(4): 464-465.
Konner M. 2005. Hunter-gatherer infancy and childhood: The !Kung and others. In: Hunter-gatherer childhoods: Evolutionary, developmental and cultural perpectives. BS Hewlett and ME Lamb (eds). New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
Mennella J. 2007. Breastfeeding and smoking: Short-term effects on infant feeding and sleep. Pediatrics 120 (3):497-502.
Reijneveld SA, Lanting CI, Crone MR, and Van Wouwe JP. 2005. Exposure to tobacco smoke and infant crying. Acta Paediatr. 94(2):217-21.
St James-Roberts I, Alvarez M, Csipke E, Abramsky T, Goodwin J, and Sorgenfrei E. 2006. Infant crying and sleeping in London, Copenhagen and when parents adopt a "proximal" form of care. Pediatrics. 117(6):e1146-55.
St James-Roberts I, Hurry J, Bowyer J, and Barr RG. 1995. Supplementary carrying compared with advice to increase responsive parenting as interventions to prevent persistent infant crying. Pediatrics. 95(3):381-8.
Shah PS, Aliwalas L, and Shah V. 2007. Breastfeeding or breast milk to alleviate procedural pain in neonates: a systematic review. Breastfeeding medicine 2:74-82.
Shenassa E and Brown M-J. 2004. Maternal smoking and infantile gastrointestinal dysregulation: The case of colic. Pediatrics 114(4): 497-505.
Spencer JA, Moran DJ, Lee A, and Talbert D. 1990. White noise and sleep induction.Arch Dis Child. 65(1):135-7.
Tishkoff SA and Verrelli BC. 2003. Patterns of human genetic diversity: Implications for Human Evolutionary History and Disease. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4: 293-340.
van Sleuwen BE, L'hoir MP, Engelberts AC, Busschers WB, Westers P, Blom MA, Schulpen TW, and Kuis W. 2007 Comparison of behavior modification with and without swaddling as interventions for excessive crying. J Pediatr. 149(4):512-7.
Verdu P, Austerlitz F, Estoup A, et al. 2009. Origins and Genetic Diversity of Pygmy Hunter-Gatherers from Western Central Africa Current Biology, 19 (4), 312-318
Weissbluth L and Weissbluth M. 1992. Infant colic: the effect of serotonin and melatonin circadian rhythms on the intestinal smooth muscle. Med Hypotheses. 39(2):164-7.
White-Traut RC, Schwertz D, McFarlin B, and Kogan J. 2009. Salivary cortisol and behavioral state responses of healthy newborn infants to tactile-only and multisensory interventions. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 38(1):22-34.
Yazdani M, Ide K, Asadifar M, Gottschalk S, Joseph F Jr, and Nakamoto T. 2004. Effects of caffeine on the saturated and monounsaturated Fatty acids of the newborn rat cerebellum. Ann Nutr Metab. 48(2):79-83.
Zink M, Araç G, Frank ST, Gass P, Gebicke-Härter PJ, and Spanagel R. 2009. Perinatal exposure to alcohol reduces the expression of complexins I and II. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 31(6):400-5.
Archer, J. (1992). Ethology and Human Development. Rowman.
Blois, M. (2005). Babywearing. Pharmasoft Publishing.
Bonnet, E.. (1998 ). In Points made during discussions regarding the carrying of Infants and small children, Published in Krankengymnastik 50 Jg (1998) No.8
Crisholm, J, & . (1983). Navajo Infancy: An Ethological Study of Child Development. Aldine Transaction.
Field, T.(2003). Touch. First MIT Press.
Heller, S. (1997). The Vital Touch: How Intimate Contact With Your Baby Leads To Happier, Healthier Development. Holt Paperbacks.
International Chiropractic Pediatric Association. Baby Wearing: Suggestions for Carrying your Baby. http://www.icpa4kids.org/research/children/babywearing.html
Kirkilionis, E. (2002). Carrying an Infant: More than the Possibility of Child Transport. Kosel.
Le Veau, B.. (1984, Dec). Developmental Biomechanics: Effect of Forces on the Growth, Development, and Maintenance of the Human. Physical Therapy. www.physicaltherapyjournal.com/cgi/content/abstract/64/12/1874
Montagu, A. (1986). Touching: The Human Significance of the Skin. Harper Paperbacks.
Morningstar. (2005). Reflex Control of the Spine and Posture: A Review of the Literature from a Chiropractic Perspective.
Chiropractic & Osteopathy. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16091134
Newman, P. H. THE ETIOLOGY OF SPONDYLOLISTHESIS. Journal of Bone Joint Surgery. 45(1963), 35-59.www.jbjs.org.uk/cgi/content/abstract/45-B/1/39
ROWE, Y. (1987). ESSENTIAL SKELETAL RADIOLOGY. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.
Schon, R. (2007). Natural Parenting-Back to Basics in Infant Care. 5(1), 102-183. from Evolutionary Psychology from http://www.epjournal.net/filestore/ep05102183.pdf
Short, M. (1996). The Effects of Swaddling versus Standard Positioning in Very Low Birth Weight Infants. Neonatal Network. 15(4).from http://www.cebp.nl/vault_public/filesystem/?ID=2156
Van Slewen et al,. (2007, Oct). Swaddling: A Systematic Review. Pediatrics. 120(4), 1097-1106.from http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/120/4/e1097
Wong, L. C. (2004, Jun). Rehabilitation of a patient with a rare multi-level isthmic spondylolisthesis: a case report. 142-151. The Journal of the Canadian Chiropractic Organization from www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1840041
Zeedyk, S.. (2008). What’s Life in a Baby Buggy Like? The Impact of Buggy Orientation on Parent-Infant Interaction and Infant Stress. University of Dundee/National Literary Trust, Nov. 21, 2008). from www.literacytrust.org.uk/talktoyourbaby/Buggy_research.pdf
